Influence of initial aerobic fitness, aerobic training and changes in aerobic fitness on personality functioning

Data reflecting aerobic performance and personality functioning were obtained from 103 women before and after they participated in a 15 week aerobic training program. Regression and covariance analyses revealed that better personality functioning was reliably associated with higher initial levels of aerobic fitness, participation in the training program independent of changes in fitness, and with changes in fitness. However, different aspects of personality functioning were related to initial fitness, participation in training and changes in fitness.     

The effects of aerobic and anaerobic training on fitness, blood pressure, and psychological stress and well-being

To determine whether fitness alters psychological and physiological indices of well-being, male police officers were assigned to either an aerobic or anaerobic training condition or to a no treatment control group. The training groups met three times per week in 45 min sessions aimed at improving either cardiovascular endurance or muscle strength. Aerobic fitness level, heart rate, blood pressure and self-report of stress and well-being were measured prior to and following 10 weeks of training. Post-training fitness measures confirmed the effectiveness of training and between group differences for physiological and self-report measures were found. Subjects undergoing aerobic training evinced larger changes on the self-report measures of well-being and stress than the anaerobic trainers and both groups showed significant improvement when compared to controls. This experiment provides support for the hypothesis that exercise, and in particular aerobic exercise, has positive effects of well-being. It is suggested that future research might usefully explore the particular contribution of different aspects of the training situation to these effects.     

Individual responses to aerobic exercise: the role of the autonomic nervous system

It is well established that regular aerobic exercise training reduces all-cause mortality and improves a number of health outcomes. However, a marked heterogeneity in the training-induced changes, e.g. in terms of aerobic fitness, has been observed in healthy human subjects, even with highly standardized training programs. Mean improvements in aerobic fitness, expressed as maximal oxygen consumption, have been about 10-15% of the baseline values, but the training-induced changes have ranged from almost none to a 40% increase. The exact nature of the mechanisms responsible for this heterogeneity in response to regular aerobic exercise is not well known. In this review, we consider evidence of the association between the autonomic nervous system (ANS), aerobic fitness and aerobic training-induced changes in fitness. Results of recent studies support the hypothesis that assessment of ANS functioning includes important information concerning acute and chronic physiological processes before, during and after aerobic exercise training stimulus. Moreover, we show that daily assessment of ANS activity could serve as an indicator of appropriate physiological condition for aerobic training.     

Exercise intensity and reduction in neurotic symptoms. A controlled follow-up study

The psychological benefits of walking and jogging were compared in 52 symptomatic neurotics over an 8-week training period and subsequent 6-month follow-up. Both groups showed marked reduction of anxiety, depression and global symptoms. Joggers had greater aerobic gain, but no greater psychologic benefit. Significantly larger numbers of joggers dropped out of the study. There was no relationship between aerobic gain and reduction of symptoms at the end of the program. However, at 6 months' follow-up, those with greater aerobic fitness had much lower anxiety levels. Changes in exercise frequency and aerobic capacity were also maintained at follow-up. Depression levels were not associated with aerobic fitness at follow-up. High initial exercise intensity appears to inhibit the forming of new exercise habits.     

The influence of aerobic fitness on cerebral white matter integrity and cognitive function in older adults: Results of a one‐year exercise intervention

Cerebral white matter (WM) degeneration occurs with increasing age and is associated with declining cognitive function. Research has shown that cardiorespiratory fitness and exercise are effective as protective, even restorative, agents against cognitive and neurobiological impairments in older adults. In this study, we investigated whether the beneficial impact of aerobic fitness would extend to WM integrity in the context of a one‐year exercise intervention. Further, we examined the pattern of diffusivity changes to better understand the underlying biological mechanisms. Finally, we assessed whether training‐induced changes in WM integrity would be associated with improvements in cognitive performance independent of aerobic fitness gains. Results showed that aerobic fitness training did not affect group‐level change in WM integrity, executive function, or short‐term memory, but that greater aerobic fitness derived from the walking program was associated with greater change in WM integrity in the frontal and temporal lobes, and greater improvement in short‐term memory. Increases in WM integrity, however, were not associated with short‐term memory improvement, independent of fitness improvements. Therefore, while not all findings are consistent with previous research, we provide novel evidence for correlated change in training‐induced aerobic fitness, WM integrity, and cognition among healthy older adults. Hum Brain Mapp 34:2972–2985, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

不同训练负荷条件下SD大鼠运动模型的构建与评价

背景：目前对运动训练中机体能量代谢的研究多集中于骨骼肌线粒体生物发生及线粒体氧自由基等各指标的变化,不同训练负荷条件下身体能量代谢的系统的机制研究较少。 目的：建立SD大鼠有氧、无氧及有氧无氧代谢交叉训练运动模型,评价各组SD大鼠能量代谢水平指标的变化。 方法：实验建立有氧、无氧、有氧和无氧交替运动SD大鼠跑台运动训练模型,有氧运动时采用递增负荷训练,无氧运动时采用高速间歇训练,并设立正常对照组。测量运动后大鼠体质量减轻程度的变化,检测运动后大鼠血清中乳酸、乳酸脱氢酶、肌酐、尿素氮、肌酸激酶、丙酮酸激酶和琥珀酸脱氢酶的活性。 结果与结论：实验结果显示无氧组体质量减轻程度明显(P < 0.05),乳酸水平增高(P < 0.05),琥珀酸脱氢酶水平低于有氧组(P < 0.05);无氧组和交替运动组乳酸脱氢酶水平均增高(P < 0.05);运动后大鼠尿素氮水平增高非常显著(P < 0.001);交替组肌酸激酶、肌酐水平显著增高(P < 0.01),丙酮酸激酶水平增高(P < 0.05)。结果表明运动后大鼠代谢水平符合有氧、无氧、有氧和无氧交替运动的代谢评价,运动模型构建成功。     

The effects of exercise training on mood and perceived coping ability in anxious adults from the general population

A comparison was carried out of the psychological effects of a moderate aerobic training programme (n = 24) and an attention-placebo strength and flexibility training programme (n = 23) in previously inactive anxious adults from the general population. Training consisted of one supervised and three unsupervised sessions per week for 10 weeks. Effects were assessed with the Profile of Mood States, the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and questionnaires indexing perceived coping ability. Seven participants dropped out of each condition during the training period. Expectations of benefit assessed pre-training, and satisfaction assessed post-training, did not differ between conditions. The moderate exercise programme led to significant improvements in aerobic fitness, and was associated with significantly greater reductions in tension-anxiety, depression and other moods than the attention-placebo condition, together with increases in perceived ability to cope with stress. Psychological responses were not correlated with changes in fitness assessed with bicycle ergometry or the 12 min walk/run test. These effects were maintained on 3 month follow up.     

Physical function and fitness in long-term survivors of childhood leukaemia

Objective: To evaluate the physical function and fitness in survivors of childhood leukaemia 5–6 years after cessation of chemotherapy.

Materials and methods: Thirteen children (six boys and seven girls; mean age 15.5 years) who were treated for leukaemia were studied 5–6 years after cessation of therapy. Physical function and fitness were determined by anthropometry, motor performance, muscle strength, anaerobic and aerobic exercise capacity.

Results: On motor performance, seven of the 13 patients showed significant problems in the hand-eye co-ordination domain. Muscle strength only showed a significantly lower value in the mean strength of the knee extensors. The aerobic and the anaerobic capacity were both significantly reduced compared to reference values.

Conclusion: Even 5–6 years after cessation of childhood leukaemia treatment, there are still clear late effects on motor performance and physical fitness. Chemotherapy-induced neuropathy and muscle atrophies are probably the prominent cause for these reduced test results. Physical training might be indicated for patients surviving leukaemia to improve fitness levels and muscle strength.     

Aerobic training in persons who have recovered from juvenile dermatomyositis

A recent study has shown that 36 persons who had recovered from juvenile dermatomyositis (JDM) have on average an 18% decrease in maximal oxygen uptake. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of a 12-week aerobic training program in this group, and assess whether aerobic training can normalize aerobic capacity to the expected level for age and gender.The patients participating in the study, one male and nine females (16–42 years of age), were in remission from JDM, defined as no clinical or biochemical evidence of disease activity and no medical treatment for 1 year. The patients had a median disease duration of 3.4 years (1.4–10.3), a median treatment duration of 2.4 years (0.4–9.3) and a median duration of remission of 7.0 years (1.2–30.0).Patients trained at home on a cycle ergometer for 12 weeks at a heart rate interval corresponding to 65% of their maximal oxygen uptake (VO_2max)_. VO_2max and maximal workload (W_max) were determined before and after the 12-week training period through an incremental cycling test to exhaustion. The patients served as their own controls.Eight patients with JDM in remission completed the 12-week exercise program; one patient completed 9 weeks out of the 12-week program and one dropped out of the study. Training increased VO_2max and W_max by 26% and 30% (P < 0.001). Creatine kinase (CK) levels were normal pre-training and did not change with training, reflecting no muscle damage. We also found that at a given workload, heart rate was lowered significantly after the 12-week training period, indicating an improvement in cardiovascular fitness.This study shows that 12 weeks of moderate-intensity aerobic training is an effective and safe method to increase oxidative capacity and fitness in persons who have recovered from JDM. The results indicate that the low oxidative capacity in JDM patients in remission is reversible and can be improved. Thus, we recommend frequent aerobic training to be incorporated into supervised physiotherapy sessions in the treatment of JDM patients in remission.     

Physical fitness level and autonomic reactivity to psychosocial stress

Two studies explored the influence of aerobic fitness level on autonomic reactivity to psychosocial stress. Experiment 1 employed a correlational, repeated measures design. A total of 45 men who were physically trained, untrained, or training were tested at three-week intervals over nine weeks. The measure of autonomic reactivity was lability in electrodermal activity during two speeded mental tasks designed to induce psychosocial stress. In the initial test session, trained subjects showed faster autonomic recovery from this stress than did untrained or training subjects; in subsequent test sessions involving the repeated administration of the same tasks, the three groups were indistinguishable. Experiment 2 employed 60 subjects who were randomly assigned to 10-week aerobic exercise, meditation, or music appreciation programs. In each session, two psychosocial stressors selected from a battery of six tasks were counterbalanced across treatments and sessions. Over the course of the study, participants in the exercise program improved significantly in physical fitness and also showed faster recovery in the electrodermal response. This quicker autonomic recovery may allow the aerobically fit to cope more effectively with emotional stress.     

Effects of aerobic exercise training and relaxation training on cardiovascular activity during psychological stress

Students who reported experiencing a high number of stressful life events were randomly assigned to: (a) an aerobic training condition, (b) a relaxation training condition, or (c) a no treatment control condition. Immediately before and after the 11 week training/control period, subjects' aerobic fitness and cardiovascular responses to acute psychological stress were assessed. Results indicated that: (1) subjects in the aerobic training condition showed significantly greater improvements in aerobic fitness than subjects in the other conditions, and (2) the subjects in the aerobic training condition showed significantly greater reductions in heart rate during all phases of the stress than subjects in the other conditions. Post-training differences between aerobic and control conditions during the moderate psychological stress were as great as 17 b.p.m. These results provide evidence for the utility of aerobic training for reducing cardiovascular activity during psychological stress, and they are consistent with earlier findings linking fitness to less illness following stress, reductions in depression and enhanced recovery in cardiac patients.     

The clinimetric properties of aerobic and anaerobic fitness measures in adults with cerebral palsy: A systematic review of the literature

ObjectiveTo analyze the clinimetric properties of maximal aerobic and anaerobic fitness measurement protocols in adults with cerebral palsy (CP).Data SourcesA systematic search through March 2015 of databases PubMed, Embase, SPORTDiscus and PsycINFO was performed with medical subject heading terms for ‘cerebral palsy’ combined with search terms adults or adolescents and multiple text words for fitness and exercise tests that yielded 864 articles.Study SelectionAbstracts were screened by two reviewers to identify use of maximal fitness measurements in adolescents (14–18 yrs) or adults (>18 yrs) with CP of all abilities. Ninety-four articles were reviewed. No studies of adolescent (14–18 yrs) qualified. Eight articles reported clinimetric properties for adults with CP who walk or propel a wheelchair independently. Five articles reported on aerobic capacity, one reported on anaerobic capacity and two reported on both.Data ExtractionMethodological quality of the studies was rated using portions of the COSMIN (COnsensus-based Standards for the selection of health status Measurement INstruments) checklist. Quality of the measurement protocols was evaluated based on statistical strength of the clinimetrics. Synthesis of the overall evidence was based on the Cochrane review group guidelines which combine methodological quality and statistical strength.Data SynthesisEight articles reported on 4 aerobic and 1 anaerobic protocols. Overall synthesis revealed that for ambulatory adults with CP there is (i) moderate evidence for good reliability and good construct validity of maximal aerobic and anaerobic cycle tests, (ii) moderate evidence for good criterion validity of sub-maximal aerobic cycle tests, and (iii) strong evidence for poor criterion validity of the six-minute walk test as a maximal aerobic test. And for adults who propel a wheelchair there is limited evidence of good reliability for maximal aerobic wheelchair ergometer tests.ConclusionsLimited quality research exists on the clinimetric properties of aerobic and anaerobic capacity measures for adults with CP who have independent mobility. Quality aerobic and anaerobic measures for adults with more severe mobility impairments are absent.     

Evaluation of physical fitness parameters in patients with schizophrenia

The aims of this study were to compare aerobic and anaerobic exercise capacities, pulmonary functions, body composition and fat distribution parameters in patients with schizophrenia and healthy controls and to investigate the associations among these parameters. Sixty (30 male, 30 female) patients with schizophrenia and 60 (30 male, 30 female) healthy controls were included in the study. Maximal aerobic capacity was estimated with the Astrand submaximal exercise protocol, and anaerobic performance was determined with a Wingate test. Body composition was established with a bioelectrical impedance analyzer. Pulmonary function tests, skinfold thickness and body circumference measurements were also carried out. Maximal aerobic capacity, maximal anaerobic power, anaerobic capacity and pulmonary function tests (forced vital capacity and maximal voluntary ventilation) were found to be lower in male and female schizophrenic groups as compared to the controls. Body fat percentage, waist and abdomen circumferences, and waist to hip ratio were found to be higher in female schizophrenic patients than in controls. We suggest that maximal aerobic capacity, maximal anaerobic power, and anaerobic capacity are poor in the schizophrenia patients as compared to healthy controls. Low cardiorespiratory fitness is related to reduced pulmonary function and impaired body composition in schizophrenia patients.     

中国北方汉族男子FECH基因rs1787997多态

背景：基因多态性与人体的运动能力及运动训练敏感性存在关联。亚铁螯合酶是生物体中血红素合成的最后一个酶，与人体有氧运动能力密切相关。 目的：探讨中国北方汉族男性亚铁螯合酶基因rs1787997多态性与耐力训练敏感性的关联，寻找与有氧耐力训练效果有关的分子标记。 方法：从2003-01入伍的中国武装警察某部队的新兵中选取102名中国北方汉族健康男性受试者，以95%~105%个体无氧阈强度进行5 000 m跑训练，每周3次，共18周，训练前后测定跑节省化等指标。使用PCR-RFLP和测序方法解析亚铁螯合酶基因rs1787997多态性的分布特征，并对该多态性与跑节省化进行关联性分析。 结果与结论：有氧耐力训练后，亚铁螯合酶基因CC基因型受试者在跑节省化时的通气量下降幅度显著高于GG基因型和CG基因型(P < 0.05)。说明在亚铁螯合酶基因rs1787997多态性中，CC基因型对提高跑节省化水平具有较高的训练敏感性，可作为预测有氧耐力训练敏感性的分子标记。     

Impact of aerobic training on immune-endocrine parameters, neurotrophic factors, quality of life and coordinative function in multiple sclerosis

In recent years it has become clear that multiple sclerosis (MS) patients benefit from physical exercise as performed in aerobic training but little is known about the effect on functional domains and physiological factors mediating these effects. We studied immunological, endocrine and neurotrophic factors as well as coordinative function and quality of life during an 8-week aerobic bicycle training in a waitlist control design. In the immune-endocrine study (1) 28 patients were included, the coordinative extension study (2) included 39 patients. Training was performed at 60% VO(2)max after determining individual exertion levels through step-by-step ergometry. Metabolic (lactate), endocrine (cortisol, adrendocortico-releasing hormone, epinephrine, norepinephrine), immune (IL-6, soluble IL-6 receptor), and neurotrophic (brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), nerve growth factor (NGF)) parameters were compared from a prestudy and a poststudy endurance test at 60% VO(2)max for 30 min. In study (1), lowered lactate levels despite higher workload levels indicated a training effect. Disease-specific quality of life (as measured by the Hamburg Quality of Life Questionnaire for Multiple Sclerosis, HAQUAMS) significantly increased in the training group. No significant training effects were seen for endocrine and immune parameters or neurotrophins. In study (2), two out of three coordinative parameters of the lower extremities were significantly improved. In summary, low-level aerobic training in MS improves not only quality of life but also coordinative function and physical fitness.     

Effects of an aerobic rowing training regimen in young adults with Down syndrome

Effects of a rowing exercise regimen on cardiovascular fitness of young adults with Down syndrome were examined. Sixteen young males with trisomy 21 (mean age 21.3, mean IQ 38.8) were randomly assigned to either a control or exercise group. All participants performed pre- and posttraining graded exercise tests on a treadmill and rowing ergometer. The exercise group performed a 16-week rowing ergometry training regimen. Following training, no changes in cardiovascular fitness had occurred for this group. However, they reached significantly higher levels of work performance for both treadmill and rowing ergometer posttraining tests. Results show that an exercise training regimen did not improve the cardiovascular fitness of young adults with Down syndrome but did improve exercise endurance and work capacity.     

Effects of aerobic fitness training on human cortical function: a proposal

We briefly review the extant human and animal literature on the influence of fitness training on brain, cognition and performance. The animal research provides clear support for neurochemical and structural changes in brain with fitness training. The human literature suggests reliable but process specific changes in cognition with fitness training for young and old adults. We describe a research program which examines the influence of aerobic fitness training on the functional activity of the human using event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging, of humans in fitness interventions.     

Guiding research and practice: a conceptual model for aerobic exercise training in Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease is a global, epidemic problem affecting mainly older adults with tremendous social and financial burdens. Older adults with Alzheimer's disease showed reduced physical activity and cognitive changes that are probably amenable to aerobic exercise training. The purpose of this paper is to develop a conceptual model to guide future aerobic exercise research and practice by synthesizing the current state of the science on aerobic exercise training in older adults with AD. The literature review found 12 qualified studies that met the eligibility criteria for inclusion in this review and revealed six constructs (aerobic exercise training, physical fitness, physical performance, activities of daily living limitations, cognition, and psychological and behavioral symptoms), which composed the Functional Impact of aerobic exercise Training in Alzheimer's disease (FIT-AD) model. The state of science on each construct in older adults with Alzheimer's disease is reviewed and summarized. The emerging evidence suggests that aerobic exercise training might positively impacts all five other constructs. The implications of the FIT-AD model for future research and practice are discussed highlighted.     

The efficacy of two task-orientated interventions for children with Developmental Coordination Disorder: Neuromotor Task Training and Nintendo Wii Fit training

Neuromotor Task Training (NTT) and Nintendo Wii Fit Training (Wii training) are both task-based interventions used to improve performance in children with motor coordination problems. The aim of this study was to compare the efficacy of these two interventions on the motor performance, isometric strength and cardiorespiratory fitness (aerobic and anaerobic capacity) of children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) attending mainstream schools in a low-income setting. A pragmatic, quasi-experimental study design was utilized. Children between the ages of 6–10 years, who scored at or below the 16th percentile on the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2) and whose teacher reported a functional motor problem, were allocated to either NTT (n = 37) or Wii training (n = 19) groups depending on school of attendance. The MABC-2, a hand-held dynamometer, the Functional Strength Measure, the Muscle Power Sprint Test and the 20 m Shuttle Run Test were used to assess performance at baseline and after the intervention. The main findings show that the mean motor performance scores of both groups improved over the study period. However, significant differences in improvement were detected between groups, with the NTT group showing greater improvement in motor performance, functional strength and cardiorespiratory fitness. No improvements in isometric strength were seen in either group. The Wii training group showed significant improvement in anaerobic performance. This study provides evidence to support the use of both the Wii Training and NTT for children with DCD. However, in comparison to Wii training, the NTT approach yields superior results across measures of motor proficiency, cardiorespiratory fitness and functional strength. The decision to use either approach may be influenced by resources and time constraints.     

Effects of aerobic training on lactate and catecholaminergic exercise responses in mitochondrial myopathies

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of an aerobic training program on the metabolic and sympathetic responses to exercise in 12 patients with mitochondrial myopathies. A 10-week course of aerobic training, consisting of supervised exercise every other day on an electrically braked pedal-rate bicycle ergometer was prescribed to each patient and four healthy controls. Venous lactate, epinephrine (EP) and norepinephrine (NEP) levels were assessed at baseline and after the aerobic training by means of constant-workload exercise performed at near lactate threshold (LT). In patients, a decrease in exercise peak values, significant for lactate (-38.6%, P < 0.01) but not for catecholamines (EP: -26.0%, NEP: -22.1%) was observed after training, findings confirmed by the lactate/EP and lactate/NEP area ratios. The results show that lactate accumulation during exercise is decreased after aerobic training in mitochondrial myopathies and that the effect is partially dissociated from the catecholaminergic response. This in turn suggests that the lactate decrease can be explained, at least in part, by the improved muscle oxidative metabolism consequent to the proposed training program.