Sociotropy, Autonomy, and Self-Discrepancy: Status in Depressed, Remitted Depressed, and Control Participants

This study examined the status of sociotropy,autonomy, and self-discrepancy in clinically depressed(N = 28), remitted depressed (N = 20), and controlindividuals (N = 20). Results from the Personal Style Inventory (PSI)and the Selves Questionnaireindicated that depressed, remitted, and controlparticipants differed significantly in their levels ofsociotropy, autonomy, and actual-ideal discrepancy.Results were in the predicted direction with depressedparticipants evidencing the highest levels of thesevariables, remitted participants the next highest, andcontrol participants the lowest. Both sociotropy and autonomy were significantly correlated withactual-ideal discrepancy. Each of the three variablesstudied accounted for unique variance in currentdepression. Together they accounted for 48% of the variance in depression scores. This studyprovides support for the relation of sociotropy,autonomy, and actual-ideal discrepancyto depression, andsuggests a need for greater attention to issues ofavailability and accessibility in the area of depressionresearch.     

Cognitive-Interpersonal Patterns in Dysphoria: The Impact of Sociotropy and Autonomy

Dysphoric and nondysphoric women who hadpredominantly sociotropic or predominantly autonomouspersonality features were compared on their responses toa standardized interpersonal task in which a confederate acted as a "helper" to plan lifechanges. As predicted, sociotropic subjects, whetherdysphoric or not, were more concerned aboutinterpersonal relatedness in the task, whereasautonomous subjects were more concerned about self-definition.Sociotropic subjects also perceived their partners morepositively and liked them more than did autonomoussubjects. Dysphoric autonomous subjects were liked less well than were dysphoric sociotropic subjectsor either nondysphoric group. These results reinforcetheoretical speculations that two distinctcognitive-interpersonal patterns underlie the behaviorof dysphoric individuals and indicate that both personalityfeatures and dysphoria influence interpersonalrejection.     

Cognitive Personality Characteristics Impact the Course of Depression: A Prospective Test of Sociotropy,Autonomy and Domain-Specific Life Events

Prospective tests of the impact of sociotropy and autonomy on the course of depression are lacking. In a sample of 97 cognitive high-risk and 62 cognitive low-risk undergraduates who experienced at least one prospective depressive episode, the interactions of sociotropy and interpersonal life events and autonomy and achievement-related life events were examined as predictors of four indicators of the course of depression. Initial analyses failed to support the hypothesis that global scores for sociotropy and autonomy interact with domain-congruent life events to predict the course indicators. The autonomy-achievement events interaction predicted less severe episodes, contrary to hypothesis. Then, factors hypothesized to underlie Sociotropy (Fear of Criticism and Rejection; Preference for Affiliation) and Autonomy (Independent Goal Attainment; Sensitivity to Others’ Control; Bieling et al., Cognitive Ther Res 24:763–780, 2000) were also analyzed. The puzzling autonomy-achievement life event interaction was explained by the underlying Independent Goal Attainment factor. Interactions between Fear of Criticism and Rejection and achievement events, and between Sensitivity to Others’ Control and interpersonal events, significantly predicted chronicity, number and severity of episodes. The findings are discussed in terms of the event-congruency hypothesis. An erratum to this article can be found at     

Changes in Psychological Parameters in Patients with Tension-type Headache Following Massage Therapy: A Pilot Study

Abstract

Investigations into complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) approaches to address stress, depression, and anxiety of those experiencing chronic pain are rare. The objective of this pilot study was to assess the value of a structured massage therapy program, with a focus on myofascial trigger points, on psychological measures associated with tension-type headache. Participants were enrolled in an open-label trial using a baseline control with four 3-week phases: baseline, massage (two 3-week periods) and a follow-up phase. Eighteen subjects with episodic or chronic tension-type headache were enrolled and evaluated at 3-week intervals using the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, Beck Depression Inventory, and the Perceived Stress Scale. The Daily Stress Inventory was administered over 7-day periods during baseline and the final week of massage. Twice weekly, 45-minute massage therapy sessions commenced following the baseline phase and continued for 6 weeks. A significant improvement in all psychological measures was detected over the timeframe of the study. Post hoc evaluation indicated improvement over baseline for depression and trait anxiety following 6 weeks of massage, but not 3 weeks. A reduction in the number of events deemed stressful as well as their respective impact was detected. This pilot study provides evidence for reduction of affective distress in a chronic pain population, suggesting the need for more rigorously controlled studies using massage therapy to address psychological measures associated with TTH.     

Sociotropy, Autonomy, and Patterns of Symptoms in Patients with Major Depression: A Comparison of Dimensional and Categorical Approaches

The purposes of this study were: (a) to investigate the relations between the Personal Style Inventory (PSI) measures of sociotropy and autonomy and symptoms of psychopathology in depressed patients (n = 103), and (b) to compare the relative utility of categorical and dimensional approaches to differentiating depressed patients on the basis of sociotropy and autonomy. Sociotropy was related to interpersonal sensitivity, guilt and self-blame, and symptoms suggesting anxious depression or high negative affectivity. Autonomy was related to interpersonal distance and hostility, hopelessness/suicidality, feelings of failure, and anhedonia, suggesting low positive affectivity. These results provide support for the relevance of sociotropy and autonomy to depression and for the construct validity of the PSI. Cluster analysis did not identify clear categorical groups of participants, and differences between the most interpretable groups on symptoms could be predicted from the dimensional sociotropy and autonomy scores, suggesting no incremental utility of a categorical approach to these personality variables over a dimensional one.     

Psychological Adjustment to Cancer: Control Beliefs and Coping in Adult Cancer Patients

Appraisals of control, the use of problem- andemotion-focused coping strategies, and symptoms ofanxiety/depression were assessed in a sample of 83 adultcancer patients (mean age of 41.6 years) on average 10 weeks after their diagnosis.Anxiety/depression symptoms were related to patients'ratings of their use of problem-focused coping, but notto perceived control or emotion-focused coping in simplecorrelations. In hierarchical multiple-regression analyses,problem-focused coping was associated with lowersymptoms of anxiety/depression and emotion-focusedcoping with higher symptoms. The interaction ofproblem-focused coping and perceived control was a significantpredictor of lower symptoms of anxiety/depression. Thispattern was found for patients' but not external judges'ratings of patients' coping intentions. The interaction of coping and control did notpredict anxiety/depression symptoms 4 months later,after controlling for initial anxiety/depressionsymptoms. Implications for adaptive coping with cancerare highlighted.     

Dysfunctional Attitudes and Vulnerability to Depressive Symptoms: A 14-Week Longitudinal Study

Beck's acute-onset model of depression proposesthat initially asymptomatic individuals with high levelsof dysfunctional attitudes (DA) will become depressedwhen stressors occur. Using a large student sample (n = 275), we conducted a 14-weeklongitudinal study aimed at testing Beck's model as anacute-onset model. Consistent with past studies (Monroe,Bromet, Connell, & Steiner, 1986; Roberts & Monroe, 1992), a DA Stress interaction did notobtain when all subjects (both symptomatic andasymptomatic) were included in the data analyses.However, when analyses were restricted to initiallyasymptomatic subjects, the predicted DA Stress interactioneffect did obtain. Specifically, under conditions ofhigh stress, initially asymptomatic subjects with highlevels of dysfunctional attitudes showed greater increases in depressive symptoms than initiallyasymptomatic subjects with low levels of dysfunctionalattitudes. Follow-up analyses revealed that this DAStress interaction was specific to females and not males. Possible reasons for the female-specificeffect are discussed. In general, these findings callattention to the fact that subject selection proceduresmay affect a researcher's ability to predict future onset of depression.     

Vulnerability to Social Stress: Coping as a Mediator or Moderator of Sociotropy and Symptoms of Anxiety and Depression

Although stressful events clearly play an important role in the development of symptoms of depression and anxiety, individuals are not equally sensitive to stress. Attempts to explain differences in adjustment have focused both on the coping strategies employed in response to stress, and on personality-related vulnerabilities to specific stressors. However, little is known about the interplay between coping and personality traits such as sociotropy, which is associated with increased sensitivity to negative social events. Measures of sociotropy and symptoms of depression and anxiety were obtained in a sample of undergraduates, along with reports of coping with interpersonal stress. Regressions controlling for recent stressful events indicated that coping does not directly mediate the relationship between sociotropy and distress, but does moderate the relationship. Both primary and secondary control engagement coping buffer the link between sociotropy and anxiety/depression, whereas disengagement coping augments the relationship. Implications for social cognitive models of vulnerability to stress are highlighted.     

Cognitive Specificity in Panic and Depression: Implications for Comorbidity

Previous studies of cognitive specificity indepression and anxiety disorders have establishedreliable profiles of depressive cognitions, and to asomewhat lesser extent, panic-related cognitions. The present study examines cognitive specificity inpure diagnostic groups of patients with panic disorderor major depression and compares cognitive profiles inthese single diagnosis groups to those observed in a group of individuals with comorbid panicand depression. In addition to Beck's CognitionChecklist, we introduce a cognition inventory thatincludes subscales for panic and depression along withsomatic preoccupation, social fears, and worry. Goodspecificity was found for panic and depressioncognitions in the pure diagnostic groups, and thecomorbid group was equivalent to the pure groups onthese measures. However, the comorbid group was alsosignificantly more troubled by less prototypicalcognitions concerning social-evaluative fears andsomatic preoccupation. These results suggest thatindividuals with comorbid depression and panic may holdadditional maladaptive beliefs beyond specificcognitions typically associated with each disorderalone.     

Painful Life Events in Psychiatric Disorders: A Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis

We reported in a previous study the painful events experienced in the past in subjects with schizophrenia or major depression, in comparison to controls, and related them to the experimental pain sensitivity, anxiety, and the diagnosis. We present here the detailed analysis of these past painful events, with the aim of determining whether schizophrenic, depressive and control groups are qualitatively (type of painful events experienced, emotional or sensory components associated with pain) and quantitatively (duration, severity, and intensity) comparable concerning their past painful experiences. The questionnaire used relies on memory and feelings and will provide an indication about the way pain is experienced and memorized in daily life. The reported history of pain was not the same in the three groups. Depressed subjects differed from the others by the number of reported painful events. Painful events of everyday life, such as trauma without fracture and wounds, were the most highly reported painful events for all groups. Surprisingly, the daily pain events are associated to affective component of pain perception. Other kinds of event were differently reported between the groups. Experience of pain appears to be memorized and reported differently depending on the psychiatric disorder and type of event. The characteristics of each individual, their previous experience, contribute to the expression of psychiatric disorders, including in the field of pain. Past pain experience should be taken into account when attending someone for pain.     

Sociotropic and Autonomous Personality and Stressful Life Events as Predictors of Depressive Symptoms in the Postpartum Period

Measures of stressful life events, sociotropic and autonomous personality, and depressive symptoms were completed by 76 women in the last trimester of pregnancy and 8-weeks postpartum. During pregnancy, women with strong sociotropic or autonomous personality style, or high levels of negative life events (or perceived loss resulting from events) in sociotropic or autonomous domains, tended to report higher levels of depressive symptoms. Cross-sectionally, there was some support for the cognitive diathesis-stress model, but not a congruency model, of depression. Longitudinal results indicated that high levels of sociotropic personality style, sociotropic loss, or autonomous loss resulting from events significantly predicted increases in depressive symptoms from pregnancy to the postpartum period. The interaction between personality styles and life events did not predict depressive symptoms longitudinally, either congruently or incongruently. Negative automatic thoughts mediated the direct effects of personality and life events upon depressive symptoms.     

Appraisals, Coping Responses, and Attributions as Predictors of Individual Differences in Negative Emotions Among Pediatric Cancer Patients

This study examined individual differences inemotional responses to cancer by applying Lazarus's andWeiner's cognitive models of emotions. Seventy-twoadolescents with cancer completed self-report measures of coping, attributions, and appraisals, andtheir parents reported on behavioral functioning andclinical status. Controlling for illness variables,hypothesized appraisals were significantly associated with trait anger (among boys) and withdepressive symptoms (among girls), not with traitanxiety. Primary appraisals were more stronglyassociated with dependent variables than were secondaryappraisals. There was little support for Weiner's model ofattributions and emotions. Secondary appraisals andattributions might be more influential in determiningaffective responses to stressors with a discoverable cause that can be modified in the future toprevent recurrence.     

Migraine Without Aura and Reproductive Life Events: A Clinical Epidemiological Study in 1300 Women

SYNOPSIS
A retrospective study was conducted on 1300 women suffering from migraine without aura referred to the Headache Centers of Parma and Pavia from 1984 to 1990. All the data concerning their reproductive life, and the modifications induced by it on the course of headache were obtained from record-charts. Migraine frequently started at menarche (10.7%); in 60% of cases the migraine attacks occurred mostly or exclusively in the perimenstrual period, in 67% of cases disappeared during pregnancy, and in 24.1% significantly (P<0.0001) worsened with "pill" intake. This study also designated a migraine subgroup which is more influenced by changes in sexual hormones, i.e. migraine with onset at menarche. This form of migraine shows more frequently a menstrual periodicity, and usually improves during pregnancy. Furthermore, menstrual migraine patients show social and cultural characteristics which distinguish them from other women.     

Relative Contributions of Life Events Versus Daily Hassles to the Frequency and Intensity of Headaches

This study investigated headache parameters (frequency and intensity) in relation to (the number and severity of) two types of psychosocial stress: major life events (as assessed by a revised Social Readjustment Rating Scale) and minor daily hassles (as assessed by a revised Hassles Scale). Subjects were 261 volunteers reporting headache. Results revealed that both headache frequency and intensity were significantly predicted by daily hassles, in particular, the average severity of these hassles, but there was a negligible relationship between headache parameters and any of the life event measures. Furthermore, a significant relationship emerged between life events and daily hassles themselves. This fits with recent findings that life events (while exerting little direct effect on headache) may trigger a succession of hassles which culminate in headaches. Also, it is not the number of hassles, but the perceived severity of these hassles that best predicts headache frequency and intensity. Finally, though significant as predictors, daily hassles explained a small portion of the variance in headache, thus pointing to the host of other possible biological and psychosocial contributions to headache.     

Life Change Events, Hope, and Self-care Agency in Inner-City Adolescents

PROBLEM: Little is known about the relationships among life change events, hope, and self-care agency in inner-city adolescents METHODS: Adolescents (N = 202) attending two inner-city high schools in Miami (M = 15.9 years; 85% African-Americans; 55% females). Measures used included the Adolescent Life Change Events Questionnaire, Miller Hope Scale, and Denyes Self-Care Agency Instrument. FINDINGS: A significant positive correlation was found between hope and self-care agency. No correlations were found between life change events and hope or life change events and self-care agency. Hope accounted for 20.8% of the variability in self-care agency. CONCLUSIONS: Hope is a significant factor in self-care agency and may be a coping strategy for inner-city adolescents who experience multiple life change events.     

Sociotropy,Body Dissatisfaction and Perceived Social Disapproval in Dieting Women: A Prospective Diathesis-Stress Study of Dysphoria

A 4-week prospective study (N = 138), using an expanded version of Becks (1983, 1987) cognitive diathesis-stress model, examined the moderating and mediating relationships between personality vulnerability, perceived dieting stress, interpersonal appraisals, and increases in dysphoria among actively dieting university women. Results from regression and path analyses indicated that actively dieting women who were highly sociotropic and who perceived social disapproval reported greater increases in dysphoria. Heightened dysphoria was also related to elevated levels of perceived social disapproval and low levels of dieting success/satisfaction. However, the impact of low dieting success on elevated dysphoria was fully mediated by perceptions of social disapproval. Low dieting success, however, did not significantly interact with cognitive vulnerability as predicted by a cognitive diathesis-stress model. The findings did provide strong evidence for the role of social appraisals in their relation to dysphoria among young women who are vulnerable to body shape/weight-preoccupation and dieting experiences.     

大学生自杀意念状况与负性生活事件的关系： 心理资本的中介作用

目的:探讨济南市某师范院校大学生的自杀意念状况与所经历负性生活事件、个体心理资本的关系。方法:采用青少年生活事件量表、积极心理资本问卷和自杀意念量表对济南市某师范院校499名在校大学生进行问卷调查。结果:大学生自杀意念检出率为8.02%,不存在性别差异。大学生的负性生活事件得分与自杀意念总分呈显著正相关(r=0.32,P0.01),心理资本水平与自杀意念呈显著负相关(r=-0.60,P0.01)。Bootstrap方法分析显示心理资本在负性生活事件与自杀意念之间的中介效应占总效应的33.33%。结论:该师范院校学生自杀意念较高,其自杀意念与所经历负性生活事件、个体心理资本高度相关,心理资本在负性生活事件和自杀意念间起部分中介作用。