Measurement of thorium isotopes and 228Ra in soft tissues and bones of a deceased Thorotrast patient.

The whole body of an individual injected with Thorotrast 36 y prior to her death was analyzed for 232Th, 228Ra, 228Th, and 230Th. Measurement of these isotopes in all tissues of the body will provide data necessary to caculate the radiation dose to individual tissues and to evaluate the risk potential associated with deposition of thorium and progeny in humans. The tissues were ashed, dissolved in acid, and the thorium isolated by ion exchange and electrodeposition. The 228Ra was determined by measuring the 0.991-MeV gamma rays associated with decay of the 228Ac daughter. It was estimated that almost all of the 232Th from the original injection was retained in the body, mostly in the tissues of the reticuloendothelial system. A total of 28 kBq (0.76 microCi) of 232Th was measured in the soft tissues and bones. The body also contained 13 kBq 228Ra, 12 kBq 228Th, and 3.9 kBq 230Th. A Thorotrastoma contained about 3.5% of the total activity. Excluding the Thorotrastoma, approximately 45% of all the activity (232Th, 228Ra, 228Th, and 230Th) was retained in the liver, 13% in the spleen, 2% in muscle, 1% in skin, slightly less than 1% in the respiratory tract, 4% in all other soft tissues, and 33% in the skeleton (bone and bone marrow). Sixty to 80% of the thorium activity in bones containing red marrow was located in the marrow. Bones containing yellow marrow had less than 40% of the thorium activity in the marrow. Highest concentrations were found in the hepatic and other abdominal lymph nodes, spleen, hilar lymph nodes, liver, trachea, and bone. Approximately 60% of the 228Ra formed from the decay of the 232Th had been excreted from the body. The 228Ra and 228Th were in approximate equilibrium throughout the body.     

Long-term tissue distribution and steady state activity ratios of 232Th and its daughters in rats after intravascular injection of Thorotrast

To estimate the absorbed dose in the critical organs of Thorotrast patients, it is necessary to know not only the distribution and concentration of 232Th but also its daughter nuclides in the body. The present investigation was undertaken in order to clarify the long-term 232Th tissue distribution and steady state activity ratios between subsequent daughters in the critical tissues using about 30 Wister male rats, as a basis for estimating absorbed doses. The tissue distribution of thorium was examined by means of an autoradiography of the whole body and/or the gamma-ray spectrometry at various times during 2 to 24 months following injection. The concentrations of daughter nuclides in tissues were determined by repetitive gamma examination over a period from 1 hr to 35 days after being sacrificed. The data indicate (1) that approximately 90% of injected Thorotrast is retained in the body for a prolonged period, but about 50% of radium and 10% of radon produced from thorium are eliminated from the body, (2) that the mean steady state activity ratios of 224Ra and 212Pb to 228Th for liver are 0.56 and 0.28, and 0.54 and 0.16 for spleen, 0.58 and 0.82 for lungs, respectively, and (3) that the parent 228Th is translocated to the bone.     

Distribution and dosimetry of Thorotrast in USUR case 1001.

The distribution of radioactivity and the associated doses were evaluated postmortem for USUR Case 1001, a female who had been injected with Thorotrast some 36 y prior to death. The distribution was determined for four nuclides: 232Th and its decay products, 228Ra and 228Th; and 230Th, a contaminant associated with Thorotrast. More than 90% of the activity was associated with the reticuloendothelial system. Approximately 32% of the total activity was found in the total skeleton (mineral bone and bone marrow), which is somewhat higher than expected from the literature. The 44% found in the liver and 12% in the spleen were somewhat lower than expected. This difference may be attributable, in part, to the initial deposition as influenced by colloidal particle size and to the radiation-induced hyposplenism, splenic atrophy, and slight hepatic atrophy observed at autopsy. In addition, roughly 3% of the activity was found in the Thorotrastoma and surrounding carotid artery tissue. Estimated lifetime absorbed doses from the 232Th series were 15 Gy to the liver, 121 Gy to the spleen, 4 Gy to the skeleton, and 16 Gy to the Thorotrastoma. Comparable dose equivalents to these tissues are 300, 2420, 80, and 320 Sv, respectively, assuming a quality factor of 20 for alpha irradiation.     

Thorium isotopes in autopsy samples from thorium workers

Concentrations of 232Th and activity ratios of 228Th to 232Th and 230Th to 232Th were determined in autopsy samples from five former employees of a thorium refinery. The ranges of 232Th activity concentrations (mBq per gram of wet tissue) were 0.17-94 in lungs, 3.9-1210 in pulmonary lymph nodes, 0.14-1.19 in bones, 0.015-0.68 in liver, 0.97-5.8 in spleen, and 0.009-0.068 in kidneys. These concentrations are 10 to 1,000 times greater than have been reported for persons not occupationally exposed to thorium. In most of the samples, the ratios of 228Th to 232Th and 230Th to 232Th activity at death of the subject were 0.2-0.4 and 0.1-0.2, respectively. 228Th to 228Ra activity ratios (+/- standard errors) of 0.86 +/- 0.11 in lungs and 1.18 +/- 0.13 in lymph nodes of one subject were obtained by calculation from ratios of 228Th to 232Th.     

Evaluation of Th series disequilibrium in Western Australian monazite

Estimation of inhaled radiation doses associated with mineral sands processing is commonly performed by gross alpha-counting dust collected on air filters. The technique requires knowledge of the extent of disequilibrium in Th-bearing minerals. The daughters which can be expected to give rise to disequilibrium, viz. 228Ra and 220Rn (also designated thoron in the paper), were investigated in a typical Western Australia monazite. The thoron flux from a dry, "infinitely thick" layer of monazite was found to be 41 Bq m-2 s-1. The depth of monazite from which thoron is exhaled is limited to 40-50 mm, and within the first 10 mm is a linear function of bed thickness. The relative loss within the linear region is approximately 0.02% of the equilibrium concentration and progressively less for layers beyond 10 mm. The sample investigated gave no indication of disequilibrium involving 228Ra. The results indicate that secular equilibrium may be assumed when calculating 232Th daughter concentrations in monazite from the gross alpha activity. More extensive work on monazite samples from a number of sites will be necessary before this can be stated as a general conclusion applicable to all Western Australian monazite deposits.     

Concurrent determination of 224Ra, 226Ra, 228Ra, and unsupported 212Pb in a single analysis for drinking water and wastewater: dissolved and suspended fractions

A technique has been developed for the measurement of 224Ra, 226Ra, 228Ra, and unsupported 2t2Pb concurrently in a single analysis. The procedure can be applied to both drinking water and wastewater, including the dissolved and suspended fractions of a sample. For drinking water samples, using 3-L aliquots, the radium isotopes are isolated by a fast PbSO4 co-precipitation and then quantified by gamma-ray spectroscopy. The radium isotopes 224Ra, 226Ra, and 228Ra are measured through their gamma-ray-emitting decay products, 212Pb, 214Pb (and/or 214Bi), and 228Ac, respectively. Because of the short half-life of 224Ra (T1/2 = 3.66 d), the precipitate should be counted within 4 d of the sample collection date. In case the measurement of unsupported 212Pb (T1/2 = 10.64 h) is required, the gamma-ray analysis should be initiated as soon as possible, preferably on the same day of collection. The counting is repeated after about 21 d to ensure the 226Ra progeny are in equilibrium with their parent. At this point, the 228Ac equilibration with its 228Ra parent is already established. In the case of samples containing suspended materials, an aliquot of sample is filtered and then the filtrate is treated as described above for drinking water samples. The suspended fraction of sample, collected on the filter, is directly analyzed by gamma-ray spectroscopy with no further chemical separation. Aliquots of de-ionized water spiked with various radium standards were analyzed to check the accuracy and precision of the method. In addition, analysis results of actual samples using this method were compared with the ones performed using U.S. Environmental Protection Agency-approved procedures, and the measured values were in close agreement. This method simplifies the analytical procedures and reduces the labor while achieving the precision, accuracy, and minimum detection concentration requirements of EPA's Regulations.     

The beagle: an appropriate experimental animal for extrapolating the organ distribution pattern of Th in humans

The concentrations and the organ distribution patterns of 228Th, 230Th and 232Th in two 9-y-old dogs of our beagle colony were determined. The dogs were exposed only to background environmental levels of Th isotopes through ingestion (food and water) and inhalation as are humans. The organ distribution patterns of the isotopes in the beagles were compared to the organ distribution patterns in humans to determine if it is appropriate to extrapolate the beagle organ burden data to humans. Among soft tissues, only the lungs, lymph nodes, kidney and liver, and skeleton contained measurable amounts of Th isotopes. The organ distribution pattern of Th isotopes in humans and dog are similar, the majority of Th being in the skeleton of both species. The average skeletal concentrations of 228Th in dogs were 30 to 40 times higher than the average skeletal concentrations of the parent 232Th, whereas the concentration of 228Th in human skeleton was only four to five times higher than 232Th. This suggests that dogs have a higher intake of 228Ra through food than humans. There is a similar trend in the accumulations of 232Th, 230Th and 228Th in the lungs of dog and humans. The percentages of 232Th, 230Th and 228Th in human lungs are 26, 9.7 and 4.8, respectively, compared to 4.2, 2.6 and 0.48, respectively, in dog lungs. The larger percentages of Th isotopes in human lungs may be due simply to the longer life span of humans. If the burdens of Th isotopes in human lungs are normalized to an exposure time of 9.2 y (mean age of dogs at the time of sacrifice), the percent burden of 232Th, 230Th and 228Th in human lungs are estimated to be 3.6, 1.3 and 0.66, respectively. These results suggest that the beagle may be an appropriate experimental animal for extrapolating the organ distribution pattern of Th in humans.     

Evaluation of Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORMs) in Inorganic and Organic Oilfield Scales from the Middle East

The distribution of natural nuclide gamma-ray activities and their respective annual effective dose rates, produced by potassium-40 (⁴⁰K), uranium-238 (²³⁸U), thorium-232 (²³²Th), and radium-226 (²²⁶Ra), were determined for 14 oilfield scale samples from the Middle East. Accumulated radioactive materials concentrate in tubing and surface equipment, and workers at equipment-cleaning facilities and naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORMs) disposal facilities are the population most at risk for exposure to NORM radiation. Gamma-spectra analysis indicated that photo-gamma lines represent the parents of 10 radioactive nuclides: ²³⁴Th, plutonium-239, actinium-228, ²²⁶Ra, lead-212 (²¹²Pb), ²¹⁴Pb, thallium-238 (²⁰⁸Tl), bismuth-212 (²¹²Bi), ²¹⁴Bi, and ⁴⁰K. These nuclides represent the daughters of the natural radioactive series ²³⁸U and ²³²Th with ⁴⁰K as well. The mean activity concentration of ²³⁸U, ²³²Th, and ⁴⁰K were found to be 25.8 ± 11.6, 18.3 ± 8.1, and 4487.2 ± 2.5% Bq kg⁻¹ (average values for 14 samples), respectively. The annual effective dose rates and the absorbed doses in air, both indoor and outdoor, for the samples were obtained as well. The results can be used to assess the respective hazard on workers in the field and represent a basis for revisiting current engineering practices.     

The daily intake of 234,235,238U, 228,230,232Th and 226,228Ra by New York City residents

The daily intake of long-lived alpha-emitting members of the U, Th and Ac series by New York City residents has been estimated from measurements of diet, water and air samples. The total daily intakes from inhalation, food and water consumption in mBq are 18 (234U), 0.7 (235U), 16 (238U), 6 (230Th), 4 (232Th) and 52 (226Ra). From this, we infer that the total daily intakes of 228Th and 228Ra are 4 and 35 mBq, respectively.     

Determination of gross alpha, 224Ra, 226Ra, and 228Ra activities in drinking water using a single sample preparation procedure

The current federal and New Jersey State regulations have greatly increased the number of gross alpha and radium tests for public and private drinking water supplies. The determination of radium isotopes in water generally involves lengthy and complicated processes. In this study, a new approach is presented for the determination of gross alpha, 224Ra, 226Ra, and 228Ra activities in water samples. The method includes a single sample preparation procedure followed by alpha counting and gamma-ray spectroscopy. The sample preparation technique incorporates an EPA-approved co-precipitation methodology for gross alpha determination with a few alterations and improvements. Using 3-L aliquots of sample, spiked with 133Ba tracer, the alpha-emitting radionuclides are isolated by a BaSO4 and Fe(OH)3 co-precipitation scheme. First the gross alpha-particle activity of the sample is measured with a low-background gas-flow proportional counter, followed by radium isotopes assay by gamma-ray spectroscopy, using the same prepared sample. Gamma-ray determination of 133Ba tracer is used to assess the radium chemical recovery. The 224Ra, 226Ra, and 228Ra activities in the sample are measured through their gamma-ray-emitting decay products, 212Pb, 214Pb/214Bi, and 228Ac, respectively. In cases where 224Ra determination is required, the gamma-ray counting should be performed within 2-4 d from sample collection. To measure 226Ra activity in the sample, the gamma-ray spectroscopy can be repeated 21 d after sample preparation to ensure that 226Ra and its progeny have reached the equilibrium state. At this point, the 228Ac equilibration with parent 228Ra is already established. Analysis of aliquots of de-ionized water spiked with NIST-traceable 230Th, 224Ra, 226Ra, and 228Ra standards demonstrated the accuracy and precision of this method. Various performance evaluation samples were also assayed for gross alpha as well as radium isotope activity determination using this procedure and the results were in close agreement with the assigned values. In addition, method comparison results of actual sample analyses agreed well with the ones performed using EPA-approved procedures. With a 3-L sample aliquot and 1,000-min counting time, the average gross alpha minimum detectable concentration (MDC) was about 0.002 Bq L(-1). The average MDC's for 224Ra, 226Ra, and 228Ra were 0.034 Bq L(-1), 0.017 Bq L(-1), and 0.036 Bq L(-1), respectively, based on a 3-L sample aliquot, 85% chemical yield, 40% intrinsic Ge detector, and 1,000-min count time. This method combines and simplifies the analytical procedures and reduces labor while achieving the precision, accuracy, and minimum detection limit requirements of EPA regulations.     

Levels of internal irradiation of the population of the RSFSR by natural alpha emitters

The values of regional mean concentrations of natural radionuclides in the teeth samples of the RSFSR residents vary within 130-203 mBk/kg for 238U, 174-490 mBk/kg for 226Ra, 1.8-3.4 Bk/kg for 210Pb, 26-56 mBk/kg for 232Th, 50-150 mBk/kg for 228Th. The mean values of 238U in osseous tissue and teeth are similar and equal 120 +/- 35 and 112 +/- 38 mBk/kg, respectively. Radioactive balance between 228Th and 232Th in osseous tissue is absent. The ratio of the concentration of 228Th/232Th is on the average equal to 2.4 +/- 0.9 and of 220Th/832Th doesn't exceed 1.3. The distribution of regional mean concentrations of radionuclides of uranium and thorium series complies with standard distribution. An annual effective equivalent internal dose obtained because of natural alpha-emitters has been calculated for the population of the RSFSR.     

Radon-222 concentrations and decay-product equilibrium in dwellings and in the open air

Results are presented of measurements of the activity concentrations of 222Rn and its short-lived decay products and the 212Pb/212Bi concentrations in more than 200 dwellings in West Germany and in the open air. For more than 130 measurements of the equilibrium factor F in dwellings the median value was found to be 0.3. Measurements of F in the open air under various conditions resulted in a mean value of about 0.4. The results of the investigations showed that indoors F depends only slightly on ventilation, indoor 222Rn concentration and other parameters. The equilibrium factor F in the open air, however, was found to depend on meteorological conditions. Empirical correlations from the data obtained for the daughter/222Rn concentration ratios were derived to provide relations for the prediction of the individual daughter product concentrations at a measured 222Rn level. It was established that the daughter/222Rn concentration ratios for indoor air do not change within the range of 222Rn concentrations investigated (1-370 Bq X m-3). These relations, however, are not valid for the daughter/222Rn concentration ratios in outdoor air. The correlations derived further suggest that the individual daughter product concentrations may be assessed with sufficient accuracy by only measuring the 222Rn concentrations. Thus the daughter ratios obtained in this way should enable good estimates of the lung dose for members of the public due to inhalation of the short-lived 222Rn daughters and the dose contribution of the individual 222Rn-daughter products.     

Radiation doses to members of the U.S. population from ubiquitous radionuclides in the body: Part 1, autopsy and in vivo data

This paper is Part 1 of a three-part series investigating steady-state effective dose rates to residents of the United States from intakes of ubiquitous radionuclides, including radionuclides occurring naturally, radionuclides whose concentrations are technologically enhanced, and anthropogenic radionuclides. This series of papers explicitly excludes intakes from inhaling (222)Rn, (220)Rn, and their short-lived decay products; it also excludes intakes of radionuclides in occupational and medical settings. In this work, it is assumed that instantaneous dose rates in target organs are proportional to steady-state radionuclide concentrations in source regions. The goal of Part 1 of this work was to review, summarize, and characterize all published and some unpublished data for U.S. residents on ubiquitous radionuclide concentrations in tissues and organs. Forty-five papers and reports were obtained and their data reviewed, and three data sets were obtained via private communication. The 45 radionuclides of interest are the (238)U series (14 nuclides), the actinium series (headed by (235)U; 11 nuclides), and the (232)Th series (11 nuclides); primordial radionuclides (87)Rb and (40)K; cosmogenic and fallout radionuclides (14)C and (3)H; and purely anthropogenic radionuclides (137)Cs-(137m)Ba, (129)I, and (90)Sr-(90)Y. Measurements judged to be relevant were available for only 15 of these radionuclides: (238)U, (235)U, (234)U, (232)Th, (230)Th, (228)Th, (228)Ra, (226)Ra, (210)Pb, (210)Po, (137)Cs, (87)Rb, (40)K, (14)C, and (3)H. Recent and relevant measurements were not available for (129)I and (90)Sr-(90)Y. A total of 11,741 radionuclide concentration measurements were found in one or more tissues or organs from 14 states. Data on age, gender, geographic locations, height, and weight of subjects were available only sporadically. Too often authors did not provide meaningful values of uncertainty of measurements, so that variability in data sets is confounded with measurement uncertainty. The following papers detail how these shortcomings are overcome to achieve the goals of the three-part series.     

Skeletal 212Pb retention following 224Ra injection: extrapolation of animal data to adult humans

Two methods of interspecies extrapolation, one based on a correlation of skeletal 212Pb/224Ra with body weight, the other based on the mechanistic relationship between skeletal 212Pb/224Ra and reciprocal bone surface-to-volume ratio, lead to the conclusion that the retention of 212Pb in the adult human skeleton is approximately complete a few days after injection. The correlation-based method gives most probable values for 212Pb/224Ra of 1.0 and 1.1 at 2 d and 7 d after injection, compared with values of 1.05 and 1.27 expected at these same times if the retention of 212Pb were complete from the time of injection and if no 212Pb were in the injection solution. The range of values corresponding to one geometric standard error on either side of the most probable value is 0.87 to 1.21 at 2 d post-injection. With the method based on the reciprocal bone surface-to-volume ratio, the best estimate of 212Pb/224Ra at 2 d after injection is 0.88, equal to the value observed in young adult beagles. An alternative interpretation of the results of this latter method leads to the conclusion that retention is complete, with 212Pb/224Ra equal to 1.0 for a 212Pb-free injection solution and 1.1 for a solution containing 212Pb in secular equilibrium with 224Ra. This work, which uses 224Ra daughter product retention data from mice, rats and dogs following 224Ra injection, provides a scientific foundation for retention assumptions made in the calculation of mean skeletal dose for adult humans. There now appear to be few uncertainties in these latter dose values, stemming from inaccurate retention assumptions; but substantial uncertainties remain in the mean skeletal dose values for juveniles and in the endosteal tissue doses regardless of age. Risk coefficients such as those in the BEIR III report that give the lifetime probability of bone tumor induction per unit mean skeletal dose may be correct for adult humans but are probably too low for juveniles due to overestimation of juvenile dose. BEIR III risk coefficients that give tumor induction probability per unit endosteal tissue dose may be substantially too small, regardless of age, due to overestimation of endosteal dose.     

An alternative method for Ra determinations in water

Concentrations of 226Ra and 224Ra in 13 wells distributed throughout McCulloch and Mason counties in the Hickory Aquifer of the Llano Uplift Region of West-Central Texas are reported. Measurable alpha-particle activity is present in all wells, with seven wells having 226Ra radioactivity concentrations greater than 185 Bq m-3 (5 pCi L-1). An alternative methodology for measuring 226Ra, 224Ra and 228Ra is described. The EPA-approved methodology for estimating total Ra is shown to be invalid for aquifers containing significant levels of 224Ra. Alpha-particle activity measurements made in the interval of 12 to 300 h after Ra isolation lead to self-consistent solutions for radioactivity concentrations of 226Ra and 224Ra, with negligible contributions from 228Ra. Radioactivity concentrations of 228Ra can be calculated from grow-in terms for this isotope used with alpha-particle activity measurements at post-isolation times significantly longer than 800 h. Comparison of the 226Ra radioactivity concentration with that reported previously by the Texas Department of Health for a single well indicates acceptable agreement. However, the radioactivity concentration attributable to 228Ra for the same well was found to be in significant disagreement with the Texas Department of Health value.     

Lung-clearance classification of radionuclides in coal fly ash

Lung-clearance classifications for 238U, 232Th, 230Th, 228Th, 226Ra, 210Pb and 210Po in respirable coal fly ash were estimated for use with the lung clearance model proposed by the ICRP Task Group on Lung Dynamics. Estimates were based on measurements of the dissolution rates for these radionuclides from sized fly-ash samples into simulated lung fluid at 37 degrees C. The estimates were expressed in the classification terms of the model, i.e. D, W and Y, indicating lung clearance half-times of 0-10 days, 11-100 days, and more than 100 days, respectively. Ash from eastern bituminous coal, western bituminous coal and mid-western bituminous coal was examined. Both Class-D and Class-Y components of 238U were found in all samples, whereas all the other radionuclides dissolved very slowly and were classified 100% Class Y. The fraction of 238U in Class D increased with decreasing particle size and increased linearly from 0.02 to 0.17 as the concentration of U in the volatile-metal portion of the samples increased. This relationship suggests that a major fraction of the U in coal fly ash may be shielded from exposure to simulated lung fluid by more-abundant metals deposited on the outer surface of fly ash during coal combustion.     

Non-destructive determination of 224Ra, 226Ra and 228Ra concentrations in drinking water by gamma spectroscopy

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency mandates that drinking water showing gross alpha-activity greater than 0.19 Bq L(-1) should be analyzed for radium, a known human carcinogen. The recommended testing methods are intricate and laborious. The method reported in this paper is a direct, non-destructive gamma-spectroscopic method for the determination of 224Ra, 226Ra, and 228Ra, the three radium isotopes of environmental concern in drinking water. Large-volume Marinelli beakers (4.1-L capacity), especially designed for measuring radioactive gases, in conjunction with a low-background, high-efficiency (131%) germanium detector were used in this work. It was first established that radon, the gaseous decay product of radium, and its progeny are quantitatively retained in this Marinelli beaker. The 224Ra, 226Ra, and 228Ra activity concentrations are determined from the equilibrium activities of their progeny: 212Pb, 214Pb (214Bi), and 228Ac; and the gamma-lines used in the analysis are 238.6, 351.9 (and 609.2), and 911.2 keV, respectively. The 224Ra activity is determined from the first 1,000-min measurement performed after expulsion of radon from the sample. The 226Ra activity is determined from the second, 2,400-min measurement, made 3 to 5 d later, and the 228Ra activity is determined from either the first or the second measurement, depending on its concentration level. The method's minimum detectable activities are 0.017 Bq L(-1), 0.020 Bq L(-1), and 0.027 Bq L(-1) for 224Ra, 226Ra, and 228Ra, respectively, when measured under radioactive equilibrium. These limits are well within the National Primary Drinking Water Regulations required limit of 0.037 Bq L(-1) for 226Ra and for 228Ra. The precision and accuracy of the method, evaluated using the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the Environmental Resource Associates' quality control samples, were found to be within acceptable limits.     

Radium-228 as an Indicator of Thorium-232 Presence in a Soil in Pernambuco,Brazil

Radiometric measurements were taken in a small area of Pernambuco, Brazil, with the objective of monitoring the radium of the soil. For this, 78 soil samples were collected. The gamma analyses of the samples were carried out using HPGe. The values obtained for the ²²⁶Ra varied from 14 to 367 Bqkg⁻¹ and for the ²²⁸Ra from 73 to 429 Bqkg⁻¹. The ratio ²²⁸Ra/²²⁶Ra varied from 1.0 to 7.0. Therefore, it is an indicator of an additional radioactivity source in this soil, maybe ²³²Th, which will be further investigated in future studies.     

Assessment of radionuclide contents in food in Hong Kong

Baseline values of concentrations of the natural radionuclides (238U, 226Ra, 228Ra/232Th, 210Pb) and artificial radionuclides (137Cs, 60Co) in food and drinks (tap water, milk, and water-based drinks) were determined by gamma spectroscopy. All food and drinks were found to contain detectable 40K contents: 0.1 to 160 Bq kg(-1) (fresh mass) for food and 0.006 to 61 Bq L(-1) for drinks. Most of the other natural radionuclides in solid food were found to have contents below the minimum detectable activities (MDA). More samples in the leafy vegetable, tomato, carrot and potato categories contained detectable amounts of 228Ra than the meat, cereal, and fish categories, with concentrations up to 1.2 Bq kg(-1) for the former categories and 0.35 Bq kg(-1) for the latter categories. The 238U and 226Ra radionuclides were detectable in most of the water-based drink samples (reaching 0.22 and 0.015 Bq kg(-1), respectively), and the 228Ra and 210Pb radionuclides were detectable in fewer water-based drink samples. The 137Cs contents in solid food were detectable in most of the solid food samples (reaching 0.59 Bq kg(-1)), but in drinks the 137Cs contents were very low (the maximum value is 0.23 Bq L(-1)) and normally lower than the MDA values. Nearly all the 60Co contents in food and drinks were below the MDA values and their contents were below those of 137Cs. The results indicate that drinks provide higher intake of natural radionuclides than solid food, but the solid food provides higher intake of 137Cs than drinks. From the measured concentrations, estimates were made on the consumption rate of radionuclides from food and drinks. The health effects due to the ingestion of the radionuclides were evaluated by calculating the committed effective dose. The committed effective dose due to the ingestion of natural radionuclides was estimated to be 69 microSv and 280 microSv for an adult male and female, respectively. The committed effective dose due to the ingestion of 137Cs and 60Co was estimated to be 0.5 microSv for both an adult male and female. The contributions from these two artificial radionuclides were less than those from the natural radionuclides by a factor of more than 100 and were also below the 1 mSv limit set in the new ICRP recommendations.     

Concentrations of radionuclides of size fractionated fly-ash emissions from a thermal power plant using Taiwan coal.

Coal, fly ash and bottom ash samples were taken from a 300-MWe coal-fired power plant with a daily coal consumption of 2400 tons. A high volume sampler coupled with several mesh testing sieves was used to separate fly ash samples into different size fractions. Determination of the concentrations of 40K, 238U, 226Ra, 210Pb, 210Po, 228Th and 228Ra was carried out either by gamma or alpha spectrometry. For elements volatilized during combustion, their radionuclide concentrations decrease with increasing particle size. The enrichment factors for all radionuclides mentioned above were studied. Their values range from 31.0 for 210Po to 2.2 for 228Ra. Of all radionuclides studied, 210Po and 210Pb are the most volatile elements; therefore, an increase in the natural radiation level should first be indicated by an increase in these two nuclides.