Regulation of natural killer cell function

Individuals lacking natural killer (NK) cells have persistent viral infections and as a consequence die prematurely. In addition, mice with decreased NK cell function are more susceptible to carcinogen-induced cancers. Current evidence strongly suggests that downregulation of MHC by certain tumors and virally-infected cells results in NK cell attack due to the inability to trigger inhibitory Ly49, KIR, and NKG2A/CD94 class Ia and Ib MHC receptors. Extreme haplotype diversity is present in both mouse and human chromosomal segments coding for NK cell class Ia MHC receptors resulting in different numbers and types of receptors being expressed in individuals and different inbred mouse strains. Whether the absence or presence of a particular NK cell receptor gene is advantageous or deleterious for an individual with respect to immunity to pathogens and cancer is a question of paramount importance. Recent advances in our understanding of NK cell function are due to the identification of activating NK cell receptors, such as Ly49H and NKG2D, for specific viral and tumor ligands (m157 and Rae1, respectively). In a clinical setting, such MHC class I receptor diversity is advantageous with respect to preventing leukemic relapse in individuals treated for leukemia and receiving bone marrow transplants. Further delineation of NK cell receptors and tumor ligands will help researchers to exploit the innate immune system to better treat such diseases.     

Renal cell carcinoma-infiltrating natural killer cells express differential repertoires of activating and inhibitory receptors and are inhibited by specific HLA class I allotypes

Among tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) directly isolated from renal cell carcinomas (RCCs), we found substantial numbers of natural killer (NK) cells in most tumor tissues. They could be identified reliably in situ with an antibody directed against the activating receptor (AR) NKp46 that is exclusively expressed by all NK cells. NK-enriched TILs (NK-TILs) showed cytotoxicity against major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I-negative cell lines. The ability to detect lysis of target cells was dependent on the percentage of NK cells within the TILs, and cytotoxicity was only observed after overnight activation with low-dose interleukin-2 (IL-2). Infiltrating NK cells were found to express various inhibitory receptors (IRs); among these the CD94/NKG2A receptor complex was overrepresented compared to the autologous peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) population. Other IRs were underrepresented, indicating that NK subpopulations vary in their tumor-infiltrating capacity. IRs expressed by NK-TILs are functional since receptor engagement with MHC class I ligands presented by human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-transfected target cell lines was able to inhibit NK-mediated cytotoxicity. NK-TILs were also able to lyse autologous or allogeneic tumor cell lines in vitro. This activity correlated with low HLA class I surface expression since lysis could be inhibited by interferon (IFN)-gamma-expressing RCC transductants that displayed a higher surface density of HLA class I molecules. Therefore, NK cells infiltrating tumor tissues have an inherent ability to recognize transformed cells, but they require cytokine activation and are sensitive to inhibition by IR ligands.     

Recombinant gamma interferon provokes resistance of human breast cancer cells to spontaneous and IL-2 activated non-MHC restricted cytotoxicity

Natural and lymphokine activated killer cells (NK and LAK) are believed to play an important role in the control of tumour progression and metastasis. Their specific receptors on tumours cells are still unknown. Several studies suggest that these cells recognise and eliminate abnormal cells with deleted or reduced expression of MHC class I molecules. Previous reports suggest that interferons (IFN), by increasing MHC class I expression on target cells, induce resistance to killing by NK cells. We investigated the role of MHC molecule expression by two human breast cancer cell lines T47D and ZR75-1 in their susceptibility to NK and LAK cells. These two cell lines spontaneously express low levels of HLA class I antigens but no HLA class II molecules. After IFN-gamma treatment they both overexpressed MHC class I and de novo expressed class II molecules as detected by flow cytometry, quantified by a radioimmunoassay and analysed by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis. Opposed to untreated cells these IFN-gamma treated cells were resistant to NK and LAK lysis. Furthermore, preincubation of IFN-gamma treated breast cancer cells with F(ab')2 fragments of monoclonal antibodies to HLA class I and HLA class II molecules was unable to restore lysis. In contrast, several complete monoclonal antibodies including anti-HLA class I and HLA class II induced the lysis of target cells whether or not they had been treated by IFN-gamma. The therapeutic use of monoclonal antibodies directed against antigens expressed on tumour cells (ADCC) in conjunction with interferon therapy should be discussed in lymphokine-based strategies for treatment of cancer patients.     

The dynamics of natural killer cell tolerance

Natural killer (NK) cells are important mediators of resistance against tumor growth and metastasis. NK cell reactivity is regulated by a balance of signals from activating and inhibitory receptors. While reactivity against tumor cells is beneficial, it is essential that NK cells do not attack normal tissue. The distinction between tumor cells and normal cells is partly made at the level of activating receptors: transformation often results in induction of ligands for such receptors. In addition, NK cells discriminate self from non-self using MHC class I-binding inhibitory receptors. Host MHC class I molecules regulate development of NK cell reactivity and tolerance, a process that is not well understood. Recent data suggest that functional maturation may not be a binary phenomenon: quantitative aspects, with regards to avidity and frequency in interactions between developing NK cells and normal cells, may be important for the generation of NK cells that are 'tuned' to optimally sensing the absence of self-MHC class I. In this article, we discuss models for development of NK cell reactivity and tolerance. Our understanding of this process may have significant implications for the use of NK cells in cancer therapy.     

Synergistic suppressive effect of double transfection of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin 12 genes on tumorigenicity of Meth-A cells.

Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and interleukin 12 (IL-12), both potent antitumor cytokines, are known to be involved in the host's antitumor immune surveillance in tumor bearers, via different mechanisms. The former enhances the activities of dendritic cells, natural killer / lymphocyte-activated killer (NK / LAK) and cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL), while the latter induces Th1-type cellular immunity and enhances the activities of natural killer T (NKT), NK / LAK and CTL. In the present study, in the expectation of synergistic actions of these cytokines in stimulating the host's immune responses, we investigated the feasibility of a cancer vaccine involving double transfection with both genes in a murine model. The expression of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I, class II and B7.1 on the surface of the double transfectants was enhanced as revealed by FACS analysis. A significant decrease in tumorigenicity was observed in mice inoculated with the double transfectants. Cytotoxicity assay revealed that the activities of NK / LAK and CTL from spleens of mice bearing the double transfectants were enhanced. The induction of tumor-specific immunity was confirmed by rechallenge with parental Meth-A cells in mice that had rejected the double transfectants. Thus, double transfection of TNF-alpha and IL-12 genes was considered to bring about synergistic suppressive effects on the tumorigenicity of transfectants through the activation of killer cells by produced cytokines and the enhancement of expression of MHC class I, II and B7.1 molecules.     

Synergistic action of a plant rhamnogalacturonan enhancing antitumor cytotoxicity of human natural killer and lymphokine-activated killer cells: chemical specificity of target cell recognition.

The spontaneous natural killer (NK) and lymphokine-activated killer (LAK) cytotoxicity of highly purified CD56+CD3- NK cells (90 to 95%) against NK-sensitive and NK-insensitive target cells was drastically enhanced when a rhamnogalacturonan contained in a commercially available Viscum album extract was present during 4-h cytotoxicity assays. This enhancement correlated strictly with an increased formation of NK cell or LAK cell/tumor cell conjugate formation. Information on the chemical specificity of NK cell and LAK cell interaction with target cells and with the rhamnogalacturonan was obtained from inhibition studies. The most efficient inhibitors (100% inhibition at 5 mg/ml) were acetylated D-mannose and acetylated L-mannonic acid gamma-lactone. They specifically inhibited in a dose-dependent manner: (a) the cytotoxicity of NK cells against K562 cells and the formation of NK cell/K562 cell conjugates; (b) the cytotoxicity of LAK cells against K562 cells and Daudi cells as well as the formation of LAK cell/K562 cell and of LAK cell/Daudi cell conjugates; and (c) the synergistic effects of the rhamnogalacturonan in the cytotoxicity assays and the target cell-conjugate formation assays with NK cells and LAK cells. The inhibitory effects observed after pretreatment of NK cells or LAK cells with acetylated mannose were completely reversible, but that obtained with acetylated mannonic acid gamma-lactone was only partly reversible, and the degree of reversibility depended on the inhibitor concentration applied during pretreatment. Nonacetylated mannose or mannose derivatives up to concentrations of 20 mmol showed no inhibitory effects. A mechanistic model representing the interaction of NK cells and LAK cells with target cells and with rhamnogalacturonan is proposed.     

A novel mechanism of antitumor response involving the expansion of CD3+/CD56+ large granular lymphocytes triggered by a tumor-expressed activating ligand.

We describe a patient with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) who developed polyclonal large granular lymphocyte (LGL) proliferation. The reciprocal evolution of AML and LGLs suggested that these LGLs had an anti-tumor activity. The patient's LGLs killed autologous leukemia cells in a different way to classical T lymphocyte-mediated cytotoxicity since it did not rely on the recognition of target antigens presented by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules by the CD3/TcRalphabeta complex. This killing was also different from natural killer (NK)-mediated cytotoxicity, which depends on the absence of MHC class I molecule recognition by NK inhibitory receptors. The LGLs were polyclonal, had a CD3+/CD8+/CD56+ phenotype, and did not express the natural killer cell receptors (NKRs) for MHC class I molecules. The LGLs did not express the NK-specific activating natural cytotoxicity receptors but expressed the 2B4 non-MHC restricted triggering receptor, whose ligand CD48 was expressed by leukemic cells and normal bone marrow cells. The 2B4 receptor participated in the ability of LGLs to lyse patient's leukemia. This represents a novel function for 2B4 in man, since this molecule, at variance with the murine system, was considered not to have direct effects on CD8+ T cell-mediated cytotoxicity. This case report allowed us to describe a novel T lymphocyte-mediated anti-tumor mechanism which relied on (1) the abnormal expansion of the rare 2B4-positive CD3+/CD8+/CD56+ T lymphocyte subset, (2) an as yet undescribed cytotoxicity mechanism in man which depended on 2B4 molecule. The relevance of this observation in human cancer immunotherapy has to be further investigated.     

Synergistic Suppressive Effect of Double Transfection of Tumor Necrosis Factor-α and Interleukin 12 Genes on Tumorigenicity of Meth-A Cells

Tumor necrosis factor-α(TNF-α) and interleukin 12 (IL-12), both potent antitumor cytokines, are known to be involved in the host's antitumor immune surveillance in tumor bearers, via different mechanisms. The former enhances the activities of dendritic cells, natural killer/lymphocyteactivated killer (NK/LAK) and cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL), while the latter induces Th1-type cellular immunity and enhances the activities of natural killer T (NKT), NK/LAK and CTL. In the present study, in the expectation of synergistic actions of these cytokines in stimulating the host's immune responses, we investigated the feasibility of a cancer vaccine involving double transfection with both genes in a murine model. The expression of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I, class II and B7.1 on the surface of the double transfectants was enhanced as revealed by FACS analysis. A significant decrease in tumorigenicity was observed in mice inoculated with the double transfectants. Cytotoxicity assay revealed that the activities of NK/LAK and CTL from spleens of mice bearing the double transfectants were enhanced. The induction of tumor-specific immunity was confirmed by rechallenge with parental Meth-A cells in mice that had rejected the double transfectants. Thus, double transfection of TNF-α and IL-12 genes was considered to bring about synergistic suppressive effects on the tumorigenicity of transfectants through the activation of killer cells by produced cytokines and the enhancement of expression of MHC class I, II and B7.1 molecules.     

自然杀伤细胞在白血病治疗中的作用

 人类自然杀伤（NK）细胞具有天然的和淋巴细胞因子活化的细胞毒活性,其功能受其表达的抑制性受体和活化性受体转导的负性和活化信号之间平衡机制调节。MHC分子能够保护正常细胞免受NK细胞介导的溶解, NK细胞能够参与抗白血病免疫反应,利用其来加强移植物抗白血病（GVL）效应,降低移植相关死亡率,能够使更多的白血病患者得以生存。     

乳腺癌患者可溶性MICA对自然杀伤细胞受体的影响

目的观察乳腺癌患者外周血自然杀伤（NK）细胞杀伤活性及受体的变化,探讨可溶性MICA（sMICA）对NK细胞受体及杀伤活性的影响。方法ELISA法检测外周血血清sMICA的含量。流式细胞术（FCM）检测NK细胞百分比、NK细胞活化性受体NKG2D、抑制性受体KIR（CD158b）表达。MTT法检测NK细胞对乳腺癌细胞株MCF-7的杀伤活性。结果与健康人比较,乳腺癌患者中81．6％表达sMICA,含量为（205．36±71．27）ng／L,且sMICA含量与TNM分期呈正相关。乳腺癌患者外周血NK细胞所占百分比无明显差异,但血清sMICA阳性的乳腺癌患者中NK细胞杀伤活性明显降低,NKG2D表达下降,CD158b表达增高。当NK细胞培养体系中加入sMICA阳性的乳腺癌血清时,其杀瘤活性明显降低【（76．2±6．7）％与（48．4±4．1）％】,NKG2D的表达明显下调[（92．5±7．1）％与（62．5±6．4）％],而CD158b的表达明显上升【（10．6±3．2）％与（43．6±3．4）％】。sMICA阳性的乳腺癌患者NK细胞与细胞因子IL-15共培养,NK细胞的杀瘤活性、NKG2D的表达明显升高,KIR（CD158b）的表达明显下降。结论乳腺癌外周血血清中sMICA可通过下调NK细胞NKG2D表达以及上调KIR表达,降低NK细胞杀瘤活性。IL-15可逆转sMICA对NK细胞的免疫下调作用。     

Combined immunogene therapy of IL-6 and IL-15 enhances anti-tumor activity through augmented NK cytotoxicity

Many tumors evade host immunity by lowering expression of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules. Theoretically, low MHC expression should activate natural killer (NK) cells and in some cases suppress tumor growth; nevertheless, some tumors also produce high concentrations of immunosuppressive cytokines, such as transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta, to inhibit the activity of NK cells. Using a canine transmissible venereal tumor (CTVT) model, we have previously demonstrated that IL-6 is a strong antagonist for TGF-beta. Herein, we found that IL-6 alone was unable to significantly promote TGF-beta-inhibited NK activities. Conversely, IL-15 alone strongly promoted NK activities; however, NK activities were inhibited to baseline levels following the addition of TGF-beta. Therefore, a new strategy using combined immunogene therapy of both IL-6 and IL-15 mediated by electroporation was used in this study. This combined IL-6 and IL-15 treatment effectively relieved the inhibitory effect of TGF-beta and activated NK cell cytotoxicity of lymphokine-activated killer (LAK) cells. Similarly, in isolated DX5+ NK cells, only IL-6 and IL-15 in combination significantly overcame the inhibitory effect of TGF-beta and promoted NK cytotoxicity. The group of BALB/c mice injected with plasmids with IL-6 and IL-15 genes (pIL-6/pIL-15) had the highest percentages of DX5+ NK cells as compared with either the pIL-6 or pIL-15 groups. Further, in SCID mice inoculated with CTVT, electroporation-mediated delivery of pIL-6/pIL-15 was significantly more efficient in suppressing both tumor establishment and tumor growth as compared with pIL-6 or pIL-15 inoculation alone. In addition, the anti-asialo GM-1 antibody abolished NK activities in SCID mice and resulted in outgrowth of the tumors. Together, these results suggest that the TGF-beta-associated inhibition of NK cytotoxicity cannot be adequately restored by simply antagonizing TGF-beta with IL-6: the co-existence of NK activating factors such as IL-15 is also important in restoring TGF-beta-inhibited cytotoxicity. This study highlights the therapeutic potential of the pIL-6/pIL-15 combination by inhibiting TGF-beta activity and enhancing NK cytotoxicity.     

Identification of a human T cell clone with the cytotoxic T lymphocyte and natural killer-like cytotoxic function against autologous mammary carcinoma and K562 line

Pleural exudative lymphocytes (PLEL) from a 60-year-old female patient showed high cytotoxicity against the autologous mammary tumor line, HMC-2, and NK-susceptible K562 cells, although PLEL demonstrated only weak cytotoxic potentials against several allogeneic tumor lines. We successfully obtained seven cytotoxic T cell clones from PLEL bulk populations, and assessed the possibility that these lymphocytes are simply natural killer (NK)-like cells or have the dual cytotoxic activity of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) and NK-like cells. These clones, designated as TcHMC-2, showed strong cytotoxicity against both HMC-2 and K562 cells. In contrast, allogeneic human peripheral blood-derived NK cells could not kill HMC-2 targets. Furthermore, a blocking study of TcHMC-2 cytotoxicity using monoclonal antibodies against CD3, CD8 and human MHC class I products showed that all of these antigen molecules were involved in the cytotoxicity of TcHMC-2 clone against autologous HMC-2 cells, indicating MHC class I recognitive cytotoxicity. These data indicate that the TcHMC-2 clone may have dual cytotoxicity with CTL- and NK-like activity against autologous HMC-2 mammary tumor and K562 cells, respectively.     

反义IGF-I基因对人7402肝癌细胞肿瘤免疫原性影响的研究

本研究利用基因治疗方法中的反义技术,通过脂质体包裹反义胰岛素样生长因子-I(IGF-I)基因导入人7402肝癌细胞株,研究肿瘤细胞表面MHC分子的表达和其对LAK细胞杀伤的敏感性。结果表明,反义IGF-I基因转染的人7402肝癌细胞,经潮霉素筛选后,Northern Blot分析显示反义IGF-I RNA表达阳性,MHC Ⅰ类和Ⅱ类抗原的表达水平高于亲本7402细胞。LAK细胞对反义IGF-I基因转染的人7402肝癌细胞的杀伤活性明显高于亲本7402细胞组(P<0.05)。说明反义IGF-I基因转移至该肝癌细胞,可提高肿瘤的MHC Ⅰ类和Ⅱ类分子的表达,显示肿瘤细胞的免疫原性增强,并可提高LAK细胞对其杀伤的敏感性。     

Cytokine-induced killer cells: NK-like T cells with cytotolytic specificity against leukemia

Cytokine-induced killer (CIK) cells are a unique population of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) with the characteristic CD3+CD56+ phenotype. These cells have demonstrated higher proliferative and cytolytic activities in comparison to the reported CD3-CD56+ lymphokine activated killer (LAK) cells that are essentially activated natural killer (NK) cells. CIK cells are non-MHC-restricted in target cell recognition and killing. We have shown the feasibility of generating CIK cells from a series of marrow samples of patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) collected at diagnosis. At maturity, the CIK cells exhibit potent cytotoxicity against autologous AML targets as well as allogeneic myeloid leukemia cells, regardless of the HLA types of these targets. This observed cytotoxicity is not entirely due to NK cells as prior pre-absorption of the NK cells cytolytic activities does not abolish the subsequent cytotolytic activities against leukemic targets. It has also been reported by others that CIK cells are cytolytic against chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) cells, both in vitro and in the SCID mouse tumor model. In a mouse transplant model across MHC barrier, the CIK cells generated from the donor do not induce graft vs. host disease as observed for unfractionated donor splenocytes. In comparison to untreated control mice, the infusion of CIK cells results in the prolonged survival of murine leukemia-bearing mice. CIK cells also express CD94, part of the NK receptor comprising of CD94-NKG2 heterodimer. However, only low level of the killer immunoglobulin-like receptors are expressed by the CIK cells. In addition, as reported for the classical CTL, CIK cells could interact with dendritic cells (DC) to result in the enhancement of cytotolytic activities against tumor cells. The characteristic biological properties of the CIK cells would, therefore, enable them to be exploited for anti-leukemic therapy.     

Identification of a Human T Cell Clone with the Cytotoxic T Lymphocyte and Natural Killer-like Cytotoxic Function against Autologous Mammary Carcinoma and K562 Line

Pleural exudative lymphocytes (PLED from a 60-year-old female patient showed high cytotoxicity against the autologous mammary tumor line, HMC-2, and NK-susceptible K562 cells, although PLEL demonstrated only weak cytotoxic potentials against several allogeneic tumor lines. We successfully obtained seven cytotoxic T cell clones from PLEL bulk populations, and assessed the possibility that these lymphocytes are simply natural killer (NK)-like cells or have the dual cytotoxic activity of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) and NK-like cells. These clones, designated as T_cHMC-2, showed strong cytotoxicity against both HMC-2 and K562 cells. In contrast, allogeneic human peripheral blood-derived NK cells could not kill HMC-2 targets. Furthermore, a blocking study of T_cHMC-2 cytotoxicity using monoclonal antibodies against CD3, CD8 and human MHC class I products showed that all of these antigen molecules were involved in the cytotoxicity of T_cHMC.2 clone against autologous HMC-2 cells, indicating MHC class I recognitive cytotoxicity. These data indicate that the T_cHMC-2 clone may have dual cytotoxicity with CTL- and NK-like activity against autologous HMC-2 mammary tumor and K562 cells, respectively.     

Role of fibrin coagulation in protection of murine tumor cells from destruction by cytotoxic cells

We have previously proposed that fibrin deposition on tumor cells during their migration in the blood could protect them from elimination by natural killer (NK) or other cytotoxic cells. Anticoagulant drugs could prevent fibrin coagulation and increase the efficiency of cytotoxic effector cells in tumor cell elimination. To further investigate the protective roles of fibrin, we studied in vitro the susceptibility of various murine tumor cells to the cytotoxic activity of NK or lymphokine activated killer (LAK) cells in the presence of murine plasma or serum. In the first set of experiments, tumor cells were incubated with plasma (at dilutions of 1:20-1:160) for 30 min before effector cells were added. Similarly, effector cells were first incubated with plasma before mixing with radiolabeled target cells for cytotoxicity assay. In some experiments target and effector cells and plasma were mixed simultaneously. The cytotoxic activity of both NK and LAK cells was inhibited if coagulation occurred around tumor-target or effector cells. Tumor cells were also protected when both target and effector cells were simultaneously mixed and trapped in the fibrin clot. Inhibition of the cytotoxic activity of effector cells against tumor cells was positively correlated with the level of fibrin clot formation. When the larger clot was formed and more radiolabeled tumor cells were trapped in the clot, the higher level of inhibition of cytotoxicity was observed. In contrast, serum did not affect the cytotoxic activity of NK or LAK cells. To exclude possible non-coagulation-related effects of plasma on LAK cells, a cytotoxicity series of experiments was performed using purified fibrinogen and thrombin. When fibrinogen and thrombin were preincubated with tumor cells or LAK cells or all components were admixed simultaneously, substantial protection of tumor cells from destruction by LAK cells was also observed. However, when heparin was added, fibrin coagulation was prevented and cytotoxic activity of LAK cells was restored. Inhibition of LAK cytotoxicity and protection of tumor cells by fibrin coagulation were mostly due to the prevention of tumor-effector cell conjugate formation. Adding plasma at postbinding time periods (15-30 min after mixing effector and target cells) did not affect the ability of LAK cells to kill tumor cells confirming that fibrin coagulation influenced the binding rather than the lytic phase of cytotoxic cell activity.     

Sodium valproate, a histone deacetylase inhibitor, augments the expression of cell-surface NKG2D ligands, MICA/B, without increasing their soluble forms to enhance susceptibility of human osteosarcoma cells to NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity

MHC class I-related chain molecules A and B (MICA and B) expressed on the cell-surface of tumor cells are ligands for an activating receptor, NKG2D, expressed on natural killer (NK) cells and stimulate the NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity. On the other hand, the soluble form of MICA and B produced by proteolytic cleavage of cell-surface MIC interferes with NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity. We investigated effect of sodium valproate (VPA), a histone deacetylase inhibitor, on the production of cell-surface and soluble MICA and B and NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity in four human osteosarcoma cells. VPA at 0.5 and 1.0 mM induced acetylation of histones bound to MICA and B gene promoters, increased cell-surface but not soluble MICA and B, and augmented the susceptibility of osteosarcoma cells to NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity. The present results indicate that VPA sensitizes human osteosarcoma cells to cytotoxicity of NK cells.     

Natural killer cells efficiently reject lymphoma silenced for the endoplasmic reticulum aminopeptidase associated with antigen processing

The endoplasmic reticulum aminopeptidase ERAAP is involved in the final trimming of peptides for presentation by MHC class I (MHC-I) molecules. Herein, we show that ERAAP silencing results in MHC-I peptide-loading defects eliciting rejection of the murine T-cell lymphoma RMA in syngeneic mice. Although CD4 and CD8 T cells are also involved, rejection is mainly due to an immediate natural killer (NK) cell response and depends on the MHC-I-peptide repertoire because replacement of endogenous peptides with correctly trimmed, high-affinity peptides is sufficient to restore an NK-protective effect of MHC-I molecules through the Ly49C/I NK inhibitory receptors. At the crossroad between innate and adaptive immunity, ERAAP is therefore unique in its two-tiered ability to control tumor immunogenicity. Because a large fraction of human tumors express high levels of the homologous ERAP1 and/or ERAP2, the present findings highlight a convenient, novel target for cancer immunotherapy.     

Characteristics of human T-lymphotropic virus type-1 (HTLV-1)-infected cell line MT-2, which is not killed by a natural killer cell line NK-92 but is killed by lymphokine-activated killer cells

Natural killer (NK) cell-mediated cytolysis (NK-lysis) is triggered by costimulatory signals of adhesion molecules and is downregulated by negative signals of killer cell inhibitory receptors (KIRs). Recently, a NK cell line, NK-92, was established. This cell line can kill several tumor cells, which possess adhesion molecules CD54 and CD102. However, the NK-92 cannot kill a human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1)-infected cell line, MT-2, although lymphokine-activated killer (LAK) cells can kill MT-2. In this report we investigated the reason for LAK sensitivity but NK-92 resistance of the MT-2. The MT-2 highly expressed CD54 and CD102, suggesting that the costimulatory signals may be intact. Then we tested the responsibility of the negative signals by determining HLA type of the MT-2 and KIRs of the effector cells. The MT-2 expressed HLA-A24, B40, B51, Cw3, and HLA-G. The NK-92 did not express KIR2DL1, KIR2DL2,3, nor KIR3DL1, but 24% of the cells weakly expressed CD94. The blocking tests against these HLA class I molecules and KIRs did not restore the NK-92 resistance, although blocking against HLA-G slightly increased its lysis. Finally, in order to eliminate the class I molecules from the cell surface, we treated the MT-2 using a buffered citric acid solution (pH 3.8). By using this treatment, the expression of class I molecules and HTLV-1 antigen decreased, and then the MT-2 was killed by the NK-92. These findings suggest that an aberrant class I molecule of the MT-2 transferred a negative signal to the NK-92 and induced the NK-92 resistance. It remains to be elucidated whether or not the HTLV-1 infection contributed to the alteration of the class I molecule.