基于模拟退火法的医用电子加速器6MV X 射线能谱重建

根据测量的中轴百分深度剂量（PDD）以及Monte Carlo模拟的单能光子PDD,研究基于模拟退火(SA)算法重建医用电子加速器6MV X射线能谱的方法。在优化过程中,选择60个能量间隔,对应不同的相对权重,选择目标函数为重建PDD（即各相对权重与Monte Carlo模拟单能光子PDD的乘积）与实测PDD之间的相关系数,运用模拟退火进行优化得到的最优解就是加速器的能谱。为了验证算法的有效性,对加速器治疗头进行Monte-Carlo模拟,得到从治疗头出射的6 MV光子能谱。实验结果表明,计算能谱与Monte-Carlo模拟能谱在能谱形状、峰值能量方面一致;同时,根据重建能谱获得的PDD与实测PDD保持高度一致,均方根误差为1.56×10^-4。上述实验结果表明,基于模拟退火算法重建光子能谱有效可靠。     

放射治疗中医用直线加速器光子能量合成方法

目的：分析一种利用高低两档能量光子拟合任意中间能量光子的方法，并与现有方法进行对比。方法：百分深度剂量曲线（PDD）和离轴剂量分布曲线（OCR）是影响光子射束数据模型计算精度的两个重要特征参数。使用Varian Truebeam直线加速器模型中金标准射束数据6和15 MV射束的PDD和OCR数据，采用最小二乘拟合方法拟合中间能量10 MV射束，与金标准数据10 MV射束数据比较分析，并与其他拟合方法进行对比，证明该方法的可行性和有效性。基于三维仿真水模体数据和不同肿瘤部位的实际病例数据实验，进一步验证合成能量方法的准确性。结果：相比只考虑PDD数据的能量拟合方法，本研究方法得到的合成能量10 MV与金标准数据10 MV光子束相比，各尺寸射野下PDD的均方根误差有所增加，但均小于1%，而OCR的均方根误差明显减小（特别是20 cm以上的射野），均小于0.5%。三维仿真水模体数据和实际患者数据测试例实验结果优于只考虑PDD数据的能量拟合方法。结论：利用PDD和OCR数据合成光子能量方法的效果较仅使用PDD数据的方法更好，合成能量光子与实际10 MV光子之间PDD和OCR差异较小，基于三维仿...     

医用加速器8MVX射线在水模体中的一阶散射X射线能谱的蒙特卡罗计算

目的：分析医用电子直线加速器的高能X射线与水模体相互作用过程中所产生的一次散射光子的能谱角分布和光子强度角分布。方法：利用蒙特卡罗粒子输运程序Geant4,模拟粒子输运过程．计算加速器8MeV高能X射线能谱,并根据在水模体中实际测量的PDD吸收曲线为依据,修正蒙特卡洛计算的能谱;并以此能谱为虚拟源能谱,通过对X射线与水模体相互作用后的光子一电子联合输运过程进行蒙特卡罗模拟的方法获取有关散射X线能谱数据。结果：用蒙特卡洛方法得到加速器8MV初始X射线与水模体作用产生的一次散射光子的散射光子强度和散射光子能量随散射角度变化的规律。结论：根据ICRP85出版物、ICRU44报告给出的数据,可以用组织平均原子序数作为组织等效原子序数;因此,组织密度变化在物理上反映了组织的原子密度的变化,当入射光子注量改变,模体密度变化时。仅引起相互作用的总截面相对于原子微分截面的线性变化,并不影响一阶散射X射线的散射光子的相对强度角分布和散射光子能量角分布。而散射光子发射的绝对量与初始X射线强度、组织的原子密度成正比。因此,一次散射光子的注量角分布、平均能量角分布结果可形成可调用的数据库,对快速蒙特卡洛计算很有意义。     

Varian Edge均整和非均整模式下6 MV和10 MV光子线能谱研究

目的:研究Varian Edge均整(FF)和非均整(FFF)模式下6 MV和10 MV光子线能谱并对比其差异。方法:利用蒙特卡洛程序软件包EGSnrc/Beamnrc建立Varian Edge 6 MV FF和FFF、10 MV FF和FFF的加速器模型,模拟所对应的相空间文件,而后以相空间作为输入源,利用DOSXYZnrc计算其在水体模中的剂量分布,并与三维水箱的测量数据比对,当模拟值与测量值之间的差异在1%之内时,利用Beamdp分析此时的相空间文件,得到对应的光子线能谱,并比较相互之间的差异。结果:模拟的百分深度剂量曲线和离轴比曲线与测量值之间的差异在1%之内。相对于FF模式,FFF模式的能谱"软化",其中6 MV FFF的平均能量从1.587 MeV下降至1.172 MeV,低能(能量≤1 MeV)光子所占的份额由41.06%上升至60.04%;而10 MV FFF的平均能量从2.796 MeV下降至1.956 MeV,低能光子所占的份额由21.22%上升至44.63%。同一射野内FFF模式的能谱随离轴距离的改变较小,同时每初始粒子所引起的能量注量是FF模式的2～4倍,射野内的能量注量分布变得不均匀,非平坦度F上升;分析不同射野下的能谱发现FFF模式的机头散射较少。结论:本研究结果对理解FFF模式下光子线的物理特性提供了非常好的参考价值。     

电子束在均匀水介质中平均能量计算方法的研究

目的：混合笔束模型可以有效地计算电子在类人体介质中的三维剂量分布。入射电子束在介质中不同深度上平均能量的计算精度影响混合笔束模型的计算精度。本文以Monte Carlo的模拟结果为参考,在均匀水介质中,对现有计算电子在不同入射深度上平均能量公式的精度进行评估。方法：将几种计算电子束平均能量公式的计算结果与Monte Carlo模拟结果进行比较。结果：比较了6 MeV、9 MeV、12 MeV、15 MeV和20 MeV电子束的计算结果与Monte Carlo模拟结果表明,对高能电子束现有公式可以有效地计算电子平均能量;对低能电子束,现有公式的计算结果存在较大误差,从而会影响混合笔束模型的计算精度。结论：为了提高混合笔束模型的计算精度,有必要对计算电子束平均能量的方法进行进一步的研究。     

用迭代法重建医用加速器光子束等效能谱

我们设计了接近实际形状的变型高斯分布作初始能谱，重建医用直线加速器光子束穿透等效能谱。与过去的方法相比，该法重建过程简单，逼近真谱速度快，逼近程度高，各参数调节能力强，计算量小，测量要求低。我们讨论了用变形高斯分布作初始能谱的重建本领，并与用三角形初始能谱重建结果作了比较。我们重建出ＳＬ７５／２０型医用电子直线加速器８ＭＶ光子束中轴的穿透等效能谱。     

Varian RapidARC直线加速器6 MeV-X线虚拟源模型的建立

目的:减少直线加速器commission过程的工作量,对加速器出束信息进行建模,使用蒙特卡罗方法进行剂量计算,并验证模型的准确性。方法:将光子束区分为初始光子束和散射光子束,分别用数学公式描述其能量和方向,建立虚拟源模型,使用蒙特卡罗方法计算在水中的剂量分布,与水箱中的测量数据比较。使用源模型计算病例计划,与商用TPS计算结果比较。结果:计算得到的PDD误差基本在1.0%以内,OAR误差在2.0%以内。在1例前列腺病例计划中,本方法计算得到的DVH曲线与不同TPS计算得到的结果基本一致。结论:本虚拟源模型方法可以很好地模拟直线加速器的出束信息,计算单个病例时间在40 s量级,可以实现病人治疗前实时的剂量验证,且有用于直线加速器自动commission过程的潜力。     

基于NHMAN辐射仿真人体模型的蒙特卡罗方法剂量计算研究

目的：人体模型主要用于放疗过程中的剂量学研究,包括新技术的开发与验证、治疗方案的验证与测量等;使用计算机化的人体模型替代实体模型是当前的研究热点。方法：构建符合中国人解剖生理数据的辐射仿真人体模型-“NHMAN-ADAM”（男性）和“NHMAN-EVA”（女性）;使用蒙特卡罗方法程序MCNP模拟0．3MeV和1．0MeV单能平行宽束外照射条件下,六种不同照射方向照射时,放射性粒子在人体组织或器官中的输运过程,并计算得到男女人体模型中的有效剂量。结果：分别得到光子能量为0．3MeV和1．0MeV时,AP照射,PA照射,LAT照射方式下的男性与女性全身有效剂量,以及光子外照射时人体皮肤等器官剂量分布,有效剂量计算值与ICRP51推荐值基本吻合,误差约为4％。结论：NHMAN辐射仿真人体模型能很好地应用于辐射剂量的计算;并且由计算数据可知,女性的辐射危险性普遍高于男性,在医学成像与放射治疗时应更加注重防护措施。     

G4射波刀治疗头的蒙特卡罗模拟

用BEAMnrc程序代码构建G4射波刀治疗头,用DOSXYZnrc程序代码计算6种不同准直器射野的百分深度剂量及离轴比。通过与测量数据对比,分别微调次级准直器大小,从而确保模型的合理构建,并借助BEAMDP程序代码分析射波刀射束中光子谱分布及平均能量、粒子能谱分布及角分布等特点。结果显示各射野的百分深度剂量误差均在2%以内;在辐射野范围内,对于20 mm的射野,蒙特卡罗方法计算的离轴比与测量值间的误差在3%以内,而对于20 mm的射野,误差最大不超过5%;光子谱峰值能量为0.380 MeV,光子平均能量为1.570 MeV;出射光子强度比电子强度高出3个数量级;光子角分布集中在与中心轴成5°的范围内,而电子角分布范围较大。这些信息对临床与辐射防护有一定意义,该模型也为射波刀剂量学特点的后续研究提供了基础。     

放射治疗能区内光子在介质中的能谱分析

目的：计算放射治疗能区内的光子在类人体介质中的能谱分布。方法：使用特征线方法将介质中的光子分解为初级光子、一次散射光子和多次散射光子．相应地，光子的微分注量分布函数也被分成三个部分，分别是初级光子的微分注量分布函数、一次散射光子的微分注量分布函数和多次散射光子的微分注量分布函数．并由相应的玻尔兹曼方程求解各类光子的微分注量分布函数。总的光子微分注量分布函数是各部分光子的微分注量分布函数之和。将微分注量分布函数对角度进行积分后。便得到光子的能谱。将使用特征线方法计算的结果和蒙特卡罗方法的计算结果进行比较。结果：光子注量分布在大部分深度范围内。与蒙特卡罗方法的计算结果结果吻合得都很好，其误差小于2％。但是在接近水层的末端，特征线方法的计算结果略微高于蒙特卡罗方法的计算结果，其最大误差达到约7％。一次散射光子的能谱分布和蒙特卡罗方法的计算结果吻合得相当好。在表面处，能量主要集中在低能部分，在高于1MeV后，迅速下降到接近于0，能谱展宽较小。在中间部位，能谱在达到最大值后呈指数曲线形式下降。而水层在末端，能谱达到最大值后，基本保持一个常数。多次散射光子的能谱分布在大部分能量点上，特征线方法的计算结果和蒙特卡罗方法的计算结果吻合得很好。只是在极低能量处．二者的计算结果存在较大的差别。结论：在放射治疗能区．特征线方法和蒙特卡罗方法的结果吻合得相当好，特征线方法可以高效和准确地计算光子在介质中的输运问题。     

Derivation of electron and photon energy spectra from electron beam central axis depth dose curves

A method for deriving the electron and photon energy spectra from electron beam central axis percentage depth dose (PDD) curves has been investigated. The PDD curves of 6, 12 and 20 MeV electron beams obtained from the Monte Carlo full phase space simulations of the Varian linear accelerator treatment head have been used to test the method. We have employed a 'random creep' algorithm to determine the energy spectra of electrons and photons in a clinical electron beam. The fitted electron and photon energy spectra have been compared with the corresponding spectra obtained from the Monte Carlo full phase space simulations. Our fitted energy spectra are in good agreement with the Monte Carlo simulated spectra in terms of peak location, peak width, amplitude and smoothness of the spectrum. In addition, the derived depth dose curves of head-generated photons agree well in both shape and amplitude with those calculated using the full phase space data. The central axis depth dose curves and dose profiles at various depths have been compared using an automated electron beam commissioning procedure. The comparison has demonstrated that our method is capable of deriving the energy spectra for the Varian accelerator electron beams investigated. We have implemented this method in the electron beam commissioning procedure for Monte Carlo electron beam dose calculations.     

Clinical implementation of a Monte Carlo treatment planning system.

The purpose of this study was to implement the Monte Carlo method for clinical radiotherapy dose calculations. We used the EGS4/BEAM code to obtain the phase-space data for 6-20 MeV electron beams and 4, 6, and 15 MV photon beams for Varian Clinac 1800, 2100C, and 2300CD accelerators. A multiple-source model was used to reconstruct the phase-space data for both electron and photon beams, which retained the accuracy of the Monte Carlo beam data. The multiple-source model reduced the phase-space data storage requirement by a factor of 1000 and the accelerator simulation time by a factor of 10 or more. Agreement within 2% was achieved between the Monte Carlo calculations and measurements of the dose distributions in homogeneous and heterogeneous phantoms for various field sizes, source-surface distances, and beam modulations. The Monte Carlo calculated electron output factors were within 2% of the measured values for various treatment fields while the heterogeneity correction factors for various lung and bone phantoms were within 1% for photon beams and within 2% for electron beams. The EGS4/DOSXYZ Monte Carlo code was used for phantom and patient dose calculations. The results were compared to the dose distributions produced by a conventional treatment planning system and an intensity-modulated radiotherapy inverse-planning system. Significant differences (>5% in dose and >5 mm shift in isodose lines) were found between Monte Carlo calculations and the analytical calculations implemented in the commercial systems. Treatment sites showing the largest dose differences were for head and neck, lung, and breast cases.     

Electron beam modeling and commissioning for Monte Carlo treatment planning

A hybrid approach for commissioning electron beam Monte Carlo treatment planning systems has been studied. The approach is based on the assumption that accelerators of the same type have very similar electron beam characteristics and the major difference comes from the on-site tuning of the electron incident energy at the exit window. For one type of accelerator, a reference machine can be selected and simulated with the Monte Carlo method. A multiple source model can be built on the full Monte Carlo simulation of the reference beam. When commissioning electron beams from other accelerators of the same type, the energy spectra in the source model are tuned to match the measured dose distributions. A Varian Clinac 2100C accelerator was chosen as the reference machine and a four-source beam model was established based on the Monte Carlo simulations. This simplified beam model can be used to generate Monte Carlo dose distributions accurately (within 2%/2 mm compared to those calculated with full phase space data) for electron beams from the reference machine with various nominal energies, applicator sizes, and SSDs. Three electron beams were commissioned by adjusting the energy spectra in the source model. The dose distributions calculated with the adjusted source model were compared with the dose distributions calculated using the phase space data for these beams. The agreement is within 1% in most of cases and 2% in all situations. This preliminary study has shown the capability of the commissioning approach for handling large variation in the electron incident energy. The possibility of making the approach more versatile is also discussed.     

Monte Carlo simulation of MOSFET detectors for high-energy photon beams using the PENELOPE code

The aim of this work was the Monte Carlo (MC) simulation of the response of commercially available dosimeters based on metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETs) for radiotherapeutic photon beams using the PENELOPE code. The studied Thomson&Nielsen TN-502-RD MOSFETs have a very small sensitive area of 0.04 mm(2) and a thickness of 0.5 microm which is placed on a flat kapton base and covered by a rounded layer of black epoxy resin. The influence of different metallic and Plastic water build-up caps, together with the orientation of the detector have been investigated for the specific application of MOSFET detectors for entrance in vivo dosimetry. Additionally, the energy dependence of MOSFET detectors for different high-energy photon beams (with energy >1.25 MeV) has been calculated. Calculations were carried out for simulated 6 MV and 18 MV x-ray beams generated by a Varian Clinac 1800 linear accelerator, a Co-60 photon beam from a Theratron 780 unit, and monoenergetic photon beams ranging from 2 MeV to 10 MeV. The results of the validation of the simulated photon beams show that the average difference between MC results and reference data is negligible, within 0.3%. MC simulated results of the effect of the build-up caps on the MOSFET response are in good agreement with experimental measurements, within the uncertainties. In particular, for the 18 MV photon beam the response of the detectors under a tungsten cap is 48% higher than for a 2 cm Plastic water cap and approximately 26% higher when a brass cap is used. This effect is demonstrated to be caused by positron production in the build-up caps of higher atomic number. This work also shows that the MOSFET detectors produce a higher signal when their rounded side is facing the beam (up to 6%) and that there is a significant variation (up to 50%) in the response of the MOSFET for photon energies in the studied energy range. All the results have shown that the PENELOPE code system can successfully reproduce the response of a detector with such a small active area.     

Using Monte Carlo simulations to commission photon beam output factors--a feasibility study

This study investigates the feasibility of using Monte Carlo methods to assist the commissioning of photon beam output factors from a medical accelerator. The Monte Carlo code, BEAMnrc, was used to model 6 MV and 18 MV photon beams from a Varian linear accelerator. When excellent agreements were obtained between the Monte Carlo simulated and measured dose distributions in a water phantom, the entire geometry including the accelerator head and the water phantom was simulated to calculate the relative output factors. Simulated output factors were compared with measured data, which consist of a typical commission dataset for the output factors. The measurements were done using an ionization chamber in a water phantom at a depth of 10 cm with a source-detector distance of 100 cm. Square fields and rectangular fields with widths and lengths ranging from 4 cm to 40 cm were studied. The result shows a very good agreement (< 1.5%) between the Monte Carlo calculated and the measured relative output factors for a typical commissioning dataset. The Monte Carlo calculated backscatter factors to the beam monitor chamber agree well with measured data in the literature. Monte Carlo simulations have also been shown to be able to accurately predict the collimator exchange effect and its component for rectangular fields. The information obtained is also useful to develop an algorithm for accurate beam modelling. This investigation indicates that Monte Carlo methods can be used to assist commissioning of output factors for photon beams.     

Modelling of electron contamination in clinical photon beams for Monte Carlo dose calculation

The purpose of this work is to model electron contamination in clinical photon beams and to commission the source model using measured data for Monte Carlo treatment planning. In this work, a planar source is used to represent the contaminant electrons at a plane above the upper jaws. The source size depends on the dimensions of the field size at the isocentre. The energy spectra of the contaminant electrons are predetermined using Monte Carlo simulations for photon beams from different clinical accelerators. A 'random creep' method is employed to derive the weight of the electron contamination source by matching Monte Carlo calculated monoenergetic photon and electron percent depth-dose (PDD) curves with measured PDD curves. We have integrated this electron contamination source into a previously developed multiple source model and validated the model for photon beams from Siemens PRIMUS accelerators. The EGS4 based Monte Carlo user code BEAM and MCSIM were used for linac head sinulation and dose calculation. The Monte Carlo calculated dose distributions were compared with measured data. Our results showed good agreement (less than 2% or 2 mm) for 6, 10 and 18 MV photon beams.     

Photon beam characterization and modelling for Monte Carlo treatment planning

Photon beams of 4, 6 and 15 MV from Varian Clinac 2100C and 2300C/D accelerators were simulated using the EGS4/BEAM code system. The accelerators were modelled as a combination of component modules (CMs) consisting of a target, primary collimator, exit window, flattening filter, monitor chamber, secondary collimator, ring collimator, photon jaws and protection window. A full phase space file was scored directly above the upper photon jaws and analysed using beam data processing software, BEAMDP, to derive the beam characteristics, such as planar fluence, angular distribution, energy spectrum and the fractional contributions of each individual CM. A multiple-source model has been further developed to reconstruct the original phase space. Separate sources were created with accurate source intensity, energy, fluence and angular distributions for the target, primary collimator and flattening filter. Good agreement (within 2%) between the Monte Carlo calculations with the source model and those with the original phase space was achieved in the dose distributions for field sizes of 4 cm x 4 cm to 40 cm x 40 cm at source surface distances (SSDs) of 80-120 cm. The dose distributions in lung and bone heterogeneous phantoms have also been found to be in good agreement (within 2%) for 4, 6 and 15 MV photon beams for various field sizes between the Monte Carlo calculations with the source model and those with the original phase space.     

Reconstruction of electron spectra from depth doses with adaptive regularization

Electron spectral reconstruction of medical accelerators from measured depth doses is a practical method for providing the input initial phase space distribution at the patient surface that is required by Monte Carlo treatment planning systems. The posed inverse problem of spectral reconstruction is ill conditioned and this may lead to nonphysical oscillations in the reconstructed spectra. Use of a variational method of solution with a regularization technique removes the oscillations but tends to smooth the sharp (deltalike) energy peak that is a common feature in electron spectra generated by medical accelerators. Because the sharp peak contains a large percentage of the electrons in the spectrum, an accurate estimate of the peak width, height and position is critical to the success of the technique for spectrum reconstruction with regularization. We propose use of an adaptive regularization term as a special form of the general Tichonov regularization function. The variational method with the adaptive regularization term is applied to reconstruct electron spectra for the 6, 9, and 18 MeV electron beams of a Varian Clinac 2100C accelerator and proves to be a very simple, effective and accurate approach. Results using this variational method with adaptive regularization almost perfectly reconstruct electron spectra from depth dose distributions.     

Commissioning stereotactic radiosurgery beams using both experimental and theoretical methods

The purpose of this investigation is to study the feasibility of using an alternative method to commission stereotactic radiosurgery beams shaped by micro multi-leaf collimators by using Monte Carlo simulations to obtain beam characteristics of small photon beams, such as incident beam particle fluence and energy distributions, scatter ratios, depth-dose curves and dose profiles where measurements are impossible or difficult. Ionization chambers and diode detectors with different sensitive volumes were used in the measurements in a water phantom and the Monte Carlo codes BEAMnrc/DOSXYZnrc were used in the simulation. The Monte Carlo calculated data were benchmarked against measured data for photon beams with energies of 6 MV and 10 MV produced from a Varian Trilogy accelerator. The measured scatter ratios and cross-beam dose profiles for very small fields are shown to be not only dependent on the size of the sensitive volume of the detector used but also on the type of detectors. It is known that the response of some detectors changes at small field sizes. Excellent agreement was seen between scatter ratios measured with a small ion chamber and those calculated from Monte Carlo simulations. The values of scatter ratios, for field sizes from 6 x 6 mm2 to 98 x 98 mm2, range from 0.67 to 1.0 and from 0.59 to 1.0 for 6 and 10 MV, respectively. The Monte Carlo calculations predicted that the incident beam particle fluence is strongly affected by the X-Y-jaw openings, especially for small fields due to the finite size of the radiation source. Our measurement confirmed this prediction. This study demonstrates that Monte Carlo calculations not only provide accurate dose distributions for small fields where measurements are difficult but also provide additional beam characteristics that cannot be obtained from experimental methods. Detailed beam characteristics such as incident photon fluence distribution, energy spectra, including composition of primary and scattered photons, can be independently used in dose calculation models and to improve the accuracy of measurements with detectors with an energy-dependent response. Furthermore, when there are discrepancies between results measured with different detectors, the Monte Carlo calculated values can indicate the most correct result. The data set presented in this study can be used as a reference in commissioning stereotactic radiosurgery beams shaped by a BrainLAB m3 on a Varian 2100EX or 600C accelerator.