Digit ratio (2D:4D) in newborns: Influences of prenatal testosterone and maternal environment

Introduction

The 2D:4D digit ratio is sexually-dimorphic, probably due to testosterone action through the perinatal period. We characterize the 2D:4D ratio in newborn (NB) infants, in between the pre- and postnatal surges of testosterone, and relate it to the mother's 2D:4D and to testosterone levels in the amniotic fluid (AF).

Subjects and methods

Testosterone was assayed in samples of maternal plasma and AF collected at amniocentesis. Shortly after birth, 106 NBs and their mothers were measured for 2D:4D ratio.

Results

NB males had lower mean 2D:4D ratios than females but this dimorphism was significant only for the left hand (males: 0.927; females: 0.950; p = 0.004). Mothers who had sons had lower 2D:4D ratios than those who had daughters and the mother's 2D:4D were higher than those of NBs regardless of sex. Both hands of NB females were negatively correlated with AF testosterone and positively correlated with the mother's 2D:4D, but males showed no significant associations. Maternal plasma testosterone also showed a negative weak correlation with NB's digit ratio in both sexes.

Conclusions

Sexual dimorphism at birth was only significant for the left hand, in contrast with reports of greater right hand dimorphism, suggesting that postnatal testosterone is determinant for 2D:4D stabilization. The lower 2D:4D ratios in mothers who had sons support claims that hormone levels in parents are influential for determining their children's sex. NB female's digit ratio, but not males', was associated to the level of AF testosterone. The mother's 2D:4D ratios were positively correlated with their daughters' 2D:4D, but the same was not observed for male NBs, suggesting that prenatal testosterone levels in male fetus lead their 2D:4D ratios to stray from their mothers' with high individual variability.     

2nd to 4th digit ratios, fetal testosterone and estradiol

BACKGROUND: The ratio of 2nd to 4th digit length (2D:4D) is sexually dimorphic (mean 2D:4D is lower in males than females) and is thought to be fixed early in development. 2D:4D has been reported to be related to fetal growth, hand preference, autism, Asperger's syndrome, sperm counts, family size, age at myocardial infarction in men and breast cancer in women. There is indirect evidence that 2D:4D is established in utero and is negatively related to prenatal testosterone and positively with prenatal estradiol. However, there are no studies which show direct relationships between fetal testosterone (FT), fetal estradiol (FE) and 2D:4D. AIMS: To investigate the relationships between 2D:4D ratios and FT and FE from amniotic fluid. STUDY DESIGN: Cohort study. SUBJECTS: 33 children. OUTCOME MEASURES: Radioimmunoassays of FT and FE obtained from routine amniocentesis; 2D:4D ratios calculated from 2nd and 4th digit length of the right and left hands at age 2 years. RESULTS: A significant negative association between right 2D:4D ratio and FT/FE ratio, which was independent of sex. CONCLUSIONS: These preliminary findings lend support to an association between low 2D:4D and high levels of FT relative to FE, and high 2D:4D with low FT relative to FE.     

Maternal smoking during pregnancy and possible effects of in utero testosterone: evidence from the 2D:4D finger length ratio

OBJECTIVES: Maternal smoking during pregnancy is linked to high fetal testosterone (FT), and an increased risk in offspring for autism, ADHD, conduct disorder, antisocial behaviour and criminal outcomes. The ratio of the length of the 2nd and 4th fingers (2D:4D) is thought to be negatively related to FT concentration, and is related to autism, hyperactivity, poor social behaviour, and physical aggression. We compare the 2D:4D ratio of children whose mothers smoked during pregnancy with the 2D:4D of children whose mother did not smoke. METHOD: Cross-sectional survey in two primary schools. Questionnaires were distributed to 710 children and 546 were returned. Of these the 2nd and 4th digits of 520 children (259 females and 261 males) were measured. The main outcome measures were 2nd and 4th digit length, smoking history of mother and father. RESULTS: Boys had lower mean 2D:4D than girls and right 2D:4D was lower than left. Among boys, those whose mother's smoked during pregnancy had lower right hand 2D:4D ratio than those whose mother did not smoke. The difference remained significant after the effects of age, height, weight and birth weight were removed. Other household smoking patterns were not associated with male offspring 2D:4D. Female offspring 2D:4D did not differ on the basis of maternal smoking. CONCLUSIONS: Maternal smoking during pregnancy was associated with low right 2D:4D in children, but the effect was restricted to boys. A link between maternal smoking during pregnancy and 2D:4D supports a causal association between FT and such behaviours as hyperactivity and conduct disorder.     

Sex and ethnic differences in 2nd to 4th digit ratio of children

BACKGROUND: The ratio between the length of the 2nd or index finger and the 4th or ring finger (2D:4D) differs between the sexes, such that males have lower 2D:4D than females, and shows considerable ethnic differences, with low values found in Black populations. It has been suggested that the sex difference in 2D:4D arises early in development and that finger ratio is a correlate of prenatal testosterone and oestrogen. In children, 2D:4D has been reported to be associated with measures of fetal growth, congenital adrenal hyperplasia, developmental psychopathology, autism and Asperger's syndrome. However, little is known of the patterns of sex and ethnic differences in the 2D:4D ratio of children. AIM: To investigate sex and ethnic differences in 2D:4D in Caucasian, Oriental and Black children. STUDY DESIGN: Population survey. METHOD: The 2D:4D ratio was measured from photocopies of the right hand of Berber children from Morocco, Uygur and Han children from the North-West province of China, and children from Jamaica. RESULTS: There were 798 children in the total sample (90 Berbers, 438 Uygurs, 118 Han, and 152 Jamaicans). The 2D:4D ratio was lower in males than in females and this was significant for the overall sample and for the Uygur, Han and Jamaican samples. There were significant ethnic differences in 2D:4D. The Oriental Han had the highest mean 2D:4D, followed by the Caucasian Berbers and Uygurs, with the lowest mean ratios found in the Afro-Caribbean Jamaicans. The sex and ethnic differences were independent of one another with no significant interaction effect. In the overall sample there were no associations between 2D:4D and age and height. CONCLUSIONS: In common with adults, the 2D:4D ratio of children shows sex and ethnic differences with low values found in a Black group. There was no overall association between 2D:4D and age and height suggesting that the sex and ethnic differences in 2D:4D appear early and do not show appreciable change with growth.     

The ratio of second- and fourth-digit lengths and congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency results in excessive androgen exposure in the gestational period and various degrees of masculinization of the external genitalia in female foetuses. Intrauterine gonadal steroids are not only essential for the development of the genital organs but also affect some other extragenital organ development.

The second to fourth digit (2D/4D) ratio shows a sexually dimorphic pattern with longer fourth digit from second digit in men compared to women. A low 2D/4D ratio is associated with high sperm count, testosterone levels and reproductive success in men. A high 2D/4D ratio is associated with high oestrogen levels in women. Second and fourth digit ratio has also found to be correlated with sexual orientation, left hand preference autism and some adult onset diseases such as breast cancer and myocardial infarction.

We found lower 2D/4D ratio in female patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency compared to healthy girls (p=0.000) and equal 2D/4D ratio for female patients when compared to male controls. Male patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency had significantly lower 2D/4D ratio than female and male controls in the right hand. Healthy boys had lower 2D/4D ratio than healthy girls.

It is concluded that 2D/4D ratio established by intrauterine androgen levels influences the sexually dimorphic digit pattern.     

Reliability of a field based 2D:4D measurement technique in children

Background

There is limited literature on the relationship between second to fourth finger digit ratio (2D:4D) and health- and skill-related fitness in children. To examine this relationship it is important to establish a reliable method of assessing 2D:4D for use with large groups of children.

Aim

The aim of the study was to examine the reliability of a field-based 2D:4D measure in children.

Methods/research design

Fifty 8–11 year olds had 2D:4D of the right hand measured using a Perspex table top, a digital camera, and Adobe Photoshop software. Second to fourth finger digit ratio (and 2D and 4D) intra-observer and inter-observer reliabilities were assessed on the same day and intraobserver reliability was measured between days. Limits of agreement (LoA), coefficient of variation (CV) and Pearson's correlation coefficient were used for statistical analysis.

Results

High correlation coefficients (r = 0.95–0.99) and low CV's (0.4–1.2%) were reported for intra- and inter-observer reliabilities on the same day and between days. LoA revealed negligible systematic bias with random error ranging from 0.02 to 0.12.

Conclusion

These findings suggest that 2D:4D (and 2D and 4D) assessment in children using digital photography provides a reliable measure of 2D:4D that can be used during field-based testing.     

Digit ratio (2D:4D) is associated with gastric cancer

Background

Sex steroid exposure during early human development may influence disease susceptibility. Digit ratio (2D:4D) is a putative marker for prenatal hormone exposure and sensitivity, as well as the action of genes closely related to carcinogenesis. Digit ratio could act as a possible marker for cancer predisposition.

Aims

The aim of this study is to investigate the possible correlations between right hand, left hand and right minus left (R − L) 2D:4D and gastric cancer (GCA) in men and women and assess the correlations with tumor staging and histological diagnosis.

Methods

Digital images of the right and left hand palms of patients diagnosed with GCA (n = 57, 42 males, 15 females) and age and sex-matched controls (n = 59, 41 males, 18 females) were obtained. Means for 2D:4D were compared. Data were analyzed by repeated-measures one-way ANOVA and Student's t-test for finger measurements and group comparisons and Pearson's and Spearman's tests for correlations with tumor staging (α = 0.05).

Results

GCA group presented significantly higher left 2D:4D, but significantly lower R − L in comparison to healthy controls, particularly so for males. Digit ratio did not correlate to clinical staging or TNM staging. However, low R − L was significantly related to adenocarcinomas.

Conclusions

Early developmental conditions, including prenatal testosterone seem to play a role on the malignant transformation of gastric lesions. The 2D:4D pattern found for gastric cancer parallels that earlier described for breast cancer. The findings suggest that 2D:4D could add to the list of etiological factors and be a putative marker for the screening of patients’ susceptibility to develop gastric cancer.     

No association between fluctuating asymmetry in highly stabilized traits and second to fourth digit ratio (2D:4D) in human fetuses

Recent studies have suggested that the ratio of the length of the second and fourth digit (2D:4D) may be associated with developmental instability (DI) as measured by the left-right asymmetry of the same digits. Because the 2D:4D ratio is amongst others, determined prenatally as a result of exposure to sex hormones, such an association could indicate that the same prenatal developmental processes determine levels of DI. In this study we criticize these earlier findings and show by simulations that they are confounded by the fact that (non-) linear combinations of the digit lengths are used as both dependent (average asymmetry in digits 2 and 4) and independent (ratio of the lengths of digits 2 and 4) variable. We therefore studied associations between 2D:4D ratios and asymmetry not only in digits but also in several other skeletal elements in deceased human fetuses. In contrast to the earlier studies, we did not find an association between 2D:4D ratios and asymmetry in digits 2 and 4. We argue that this may be due to the low levels of DI in this study, which limits the confounding effects of DI. Also, no associations were detected with the asymmetry of all other trait either. Thus, there appears to be very little evidence of any link between DI and 2D:4D in this population for limb measurements. We conclude that highly stabilized and functionally important traits such as human limbs may in general show limited increases in asymmetry with prenatal stress.     

The ratio of second to fourth digit lengths: a marker of impaired fetal growth?

BACKGROUND: Epidemiological studies showing that impaired fetal growth has long-term adverse health consequences have depended on crude measures of fetal growth such as overall weight or length. For future studies, there is a need to develop improved morphological markers of fetal growth which persist into adult life. Recent studies have suggested that the ratio of the length of the second finger relative to the length of the fourth finger (2D:4D ratio) is determined during fetal life and may be such a marker. AIMS: To determine whether the 2D:4D ratio is associated with size at birth. DESIGN: Cohort study. SUBJECTS: 139 men and women born in Preston, Lancashire between 1935 and 1943. OUTCOME MEASURES: Measurements of the 2D:4D ratio in palm prints. RESULTS: Men who had an above average placental weight and a shorter neonatal crown-heel length had higher 2D:4D ratios in adult life. CONCLUSIONS: These preliminary findings lend support to the hypothesis that the 2D:4D ratio is determined during fetal life.     

Second to fourth digit ratio,handedness and testicular germ cell tumors

Background

Research on early life exposures and testicular germ cell tumors (TGCT) risk has focused on a possible perinatal etiology with a well-known hypothesis suggesting that hormonal involvement during fetal life is associated with risk. Second-to-fourth digit ratio (2D:4D) and left-hand dominance have been proposed as markers of prenatal hormone exposure.

Aim

To evaluate associations between 2D:4D digit ratio, right minus left 2D:4D (Δ_R − L), and left-hand dominance and TGCT in the U.S. Servicemen's Testicular Tumor Environmental and Endocrine Determinants Study.

Methods

A total of 246 TGCT cases and 236 non-testicular cancer controls participated in the current study, and completed a self-administered questionnaire. Associations between digit ratio, hand dominance and TGCT were estimated using unconditional logistic regression adjusting for identified covariates.

Results

Right 2D:4D was not associated with TGCT [odds ratio (OR) for a one-standard deviation (SD) increase in right-hand 2D:4D: 1.12, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.93–1.34]. The results were consistent when evaluating the association based on the left hand. The difference between right and left-hand 2D:4D was also not associated with TGCT risk [OR for a one-SD increase in Δ_R − L: 1.03, 95% CI: 0.87–1.23]. Compared to men who reported right-hand dominance, ambidexterity [OR (95% CI) = 0.65 (0.30–1.41)] and left-hand dominance [OR (95% CI) = 0.79 (0.44–1.44)] were not associated with risk.

Conclusions

These results do not support the hypothesis that prenatal hormonal imbalance is associated with TGCT risk. Given the limited sample size, further evaluation of the relationship between TGCT and prenatal hormonal factors using digit ratio, Δ_R − L, or left-hand dominance and larger sample size are warranted.     

单中心汉族足月新生儿18个体表信息横断面研究

目的在单中心汉族人口中建立正常足月新生儿18个体表信息的参考范围值。方法依据《人体测量手册》上提供的方法,选取复旦大学附属妇产科医院37～40周生后2 h内的595名健康足月、汉族和单胎新生儿,行身长、体重、头围、乳距、胸围、内眦间距、外眦间距、睑裂长、耳长、耳宽、鼻长、鼻宽、鼻高、口宽、人中线长、手长、手中指长和足长信息的直接测量,每个体表信息连续重复测量3次,取3次测量的平均值行统计学分析。应用LMS软件 （light version）来构建分性别按照孕周的各测量的光滑的百分位数曲线。 结果2011年8月至2012年9月间符合本文纳入和排除标准的新生儿595例进入分析,男性305例,女性290例,其中37周83例（男40例,女43例）,38周218例（男118例,女100例）,39周185例（男91例,女94例）,40周109例（男54例,女55例）。构建18个体表信息第3~97百分位数。37周新生儿中5/18个（27.8%）体表信息值男性>女性,P均＜0.05,分别为耳长、耳宽、鼻宽、鼻长和足长;38周新生儿中11/18个（61.1%）体表信息值男性>女性,P均＜0.05,分别为身长、体重、耳长、耳宽、鼻高、鼻宽、鼻长、口宽、手长、中指长和足长;39周新生儿中14/18个（77.8%）体表信息值男性>女性,P均＜0.05,分别为身长、体重、头围、胸围、内眦间距、外眦间距、睑裂长、耳长、耳宽、鼻宽、鼻长、人中线长、手长和足长;40周新生儿中11/18个（61.1%）体表信息值男性>女性,P均＜0.05,分别为身长、体重、头围、胸围、内眦间距、外眦间距、耳长、耳宽、鼻宽、足长和乳距,其余体表信息值性别差异均无统计学意义,P均＞0.05。 结论建立了单中心汉族足月新生儿18个体表信息的参考范围值和百分位数。男女新生儿5～14个体表信息值有差异,男性体表信息值>女性。     

Anatomical development of the fetal uterus

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to gather data on the morphology of the uterus during its development, to provide detailed information regarding the neighboring structures and its variations using anatomical dissections. STUDY DESIGN: Eighty uteri acquired from female fetuses aged 10-40 weeks of gestation were used in this study. Firstly, the relationship between the fetal uterus and the linea terminalis and the position of the uterus within the pelvic cavity was noted. Then the distance between the fundus of the uterus to the promontory and pubic symphysis were measured. Fetal uteri were classified according to their physical appearances. Finally the lengths of the corpus and cervix in three planes and the anteflexion angle were measured. RESULTS: During the fetal period, the fundus of the uterus was above the linea terminalis in 94% and below it in 6% of the cases. The distance between the fundus of the uterus and the promontory significantly correlated with the distance between the fundus of the uterus and the pubic symphysis (p<0.001). This was true for the correlation between the gestational age and the orthogonal lengths of the uterine corpus and cervix (p<0.001). As the gestational age advanced, the anteflexion angle was noted to reduce from 177 degrees to 120 degrees . The shape of the uterus was either cylindrical, pear-shaped, heart-shaped or hourglass-shaped during the fetal period. CONDENSATION: We believe that the data obtained through dissections of the human fetuses in this study will help identifying uterine developmental variations, anomalies and pathologies and will contribute to the studies carried out in obstetrics, perinatology, forensic medicine and fetal pathology departments.     

Gender differences in newborn subcutaneous fat distribution

The pattern and distribution of subcutaneous fat in term and preterm newborns has been assessed by skinfold thicknesses (ST), describing gender and gestational age variations. Weight, length and ST (triceps, biceps, subscapular and suprailiac) were measured in 4634 neonates (2445 males and 2189 females) aged from 32 to 41 gestational weeks. Central to total skinfold ratio (CTS), (suprailiac + subscapular)/sum of 4 ST, was calculated. Males were heavier and longer than females. The sum of 4 ST and CTS was higher in females at every gestational age (with significant differences from 35 weeks) and also the sum of 4 ST per kg body weight (P<0.05 from 32–33 weeks). Throughout the gestational period, ST increased significantly (P<0.0001) but CTS did not show variations, neither in males nor in females. Conclusion: term and preterm females have a more centralised pattern and more amount of subcutaneous fat than males. Central to total skinfold ratio must be considered as an index of centripetal fat store which is independant of gestational age.Abbreviations BS biceps skinfold thickness - CTS central to total skinfold ratio - DXA dual energy X-ray absorptiometry - FFM fat-free mass - FM fat mass - SBS subscapular skinfold thickness - SPS suprailiac skinfold thickness - ST skinfold thickness - ST the sum of the four skinfolds (biceps, triceps, subscapular and suprailiac) - TS triceps skinfold thickness     

Correlations between digit ratio and infertility in Chinese men

Background

Digit ratio, especially second to fourth digit ratio (2D:4D) is lower in men than in women. The ratios of digit may be established in utero and is negatively correlated with sperm counts and testosterone in men and positively correlated with estrogen in men and women.

Aim

To study whether the digit ratio (especially 2D:4D) are associated with the a + b ratio of sperm number in Chinese populations.

Methods

Photocopies of the two hands of 268 men (controls: 72; patients: 196) and seminal parameters of masturbatory semen samples were collected.

Results

The mean values of digit ratio of the controls and the patients all presented a trend as 2D:3D < 2D:4D < 3D:4D < 2D:5D < 4D:5D < 3D:5D; the patients have higher mean values than controls; significant variances of 2D:3D, 3D:4D (left: P < 0.05; right: P ≤ 0.05) and 2D:4D (left: P < 0.001; right: P < 0.01) were found between two groups; there was a higher percentage of 2D > 4D in the patients; the relationship between 2D:4D and a + b ratio of sperm number in the patients was significant (P < 0.001).

Conclusion

Digit ratio, especially 2D:4D in the left hand maybe one of the important markers of infertility in men for early diagnosis.     

Maternal smoking and fetal growth of full term infants

Results of investigation into the effects of maternal smoking and other selected independent variables on fetal growth indicated that smoking by gravida was assoicated with reductions in birth weights and crown-heel lengths, but not with ponderal indices of newborn infants. Mothers of single infants were interviewed following delivery and before discharge about the amount of smoking during pregnancy. Infants were weighed and measured at birth, and step-wise multiple regression analyses were used to interpret the data for 4 groups of infants: males born to primiparas, males born to multiparas, females born to primiparas, and females born to multiparas. Results indicate that maternal smoking during pregnancy was associated with reductions in birth weights and crown-heel lengths, but not in ponderal indices of these groups of full-term infants. The effects of smoking on fetal growth did not appear to be related to poor maternal nutrition, and mean weight gains during the last 2 trimesters of pregnancy were not significantly different in smoking and nonsmoking mothers. Conflicting opinions exist concerning whether the reduction in crown-heel lengths are transitory or not; thus further study is recommended.     

Circulating PCSK9 levels correlate with the serum LDL cholesterol level in newborn infants

Background and aims

Protein convertase subtilisin/Kexin type-9 (PCSK9) is a substantial player in lipoprotein metabolism. This study was designed to elucidate the role of PCSK9 in the regulation of lipoprotein during the fetal period.

Study design and subjects

This study was a cross-sectional study. Eighty-one neonates (45 males, 36 females) who were admitted to the neonatal intensive care unit were enrolled in the study. The median age in gestational weeks and weight at birth were 37.1 weeks and 2493 g, respectively. There were no gender differences, but the proportion of infants who were small-for-gestational age (SGA) was significantly higher among females than males. The prefed serum PCSK9 level was assayed with ELISA kits.

Results

The median PCSK9 concentration in male newborns was significantly lower than that in females (148.2 ng/ml vs. 171.4 ng/ml, respectively, p < 0.001). Circulating serum PCSK9 levels were positively correlated with total cholesterol (r = 0.281, p < 0.05) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C; r = 0.272, p < 0.05). However, there were no correlations between PCSK9 levels and birth weight, gestational age or SGA. Multivariate forward stepwise linear regression analysis revealed that gestational age and circulating PCSK9 levels were independent predictors of the serum LDL-C levels in newborn infants.

Conclusion

Our first quantitative analysis of neonatal serum PCSK9 levels at birth showed that circulating PCSK9 levels show gender-based differences and are significantly correlated with LDL-C. These results suggest that PCSK9 could play an important role in regulating LDL-C levels during the fetal period.     

The development of jejunum and ileum during the fetal period

OBJECTIVE: In our study, the morphologic structures of the jejunum and ileum sections of small intestine were investigated in human fetuses during the fetal period. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study was realised on 131 human fetuses (male: 69; female: 62) with ages between 10 and 40 weeks, which have got no external pathology and anomalies. The external sizes of fetuses were measured, and then the structures in the abdominal cavity were determined by the abdominal dissection. The localization of jejunum and ileum, duodenojejunal flexure and ileal orifice points, the measurements of macroscopic diameters, types of the mass of jejunum and ileum and the localization according to the abdominal regions of the mass of jejunum and ileum were determined. Also, the samples of the jejunum and ileum were examined both macroscopically and microscopically. The thickness of tunica serosa, tunica muscularis and tunica mucosa was determined under the light microscope. RESULTS: According to the sexes, gestational ages and groups, the averages and the standard deviations of the all parameters were determined. The correlations between the parameters were determined. The percentage of parameters was compared according to sex and among groups. No differences were found in parameters between sexes (p<0.05). The macroscopic parameters were increased according to the gestational age. The thickness of tunica serosa did not change according to the gestational age. CONCLUSION: It is thought that the data we have will help the evaluation of jejunum and ileum in intrauterine period; we also believe that the data in our study may help in the diagnosis and treatment of anomalies and pathologies in fetal period that belongs to jejunum and ileum.     

Impaired left ventricular diastolic function in newborn infants of mothers with pregestational or gestational diabetes with good glycemic control

THE AIM OF THE STUDY: We assessed by echocardiography the left ventricular systolic and diastolic function in newborn infants of mothers with well-controlled pregestational type 1 or gestational diabetes (IDM) in comparison to normal term neonates. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Two-dimensional/M-mode and Doppler transmitral flow velocity measurements were performed in 18 IDM and 26 control infants of non-diabetic mothers (gestational ages 36-40 and 36-41 weeks, respectively) between days 2 and 5 after birth. In the IDM, there were nine mothers with pregestational (White class C or D) and nine mothers with gestational diabetes (White class A or A/B). Peak early and atrial filling velocity, early deceleration time, early acceleration time, early, atrial and total time velocity integrals were used to examine the left ventricular diastolic performance. We also calculated the early/atrial velocity ratio, early/atrial integral ratio and early/total integral ratio. The fractional shortening, fractional shortening area, midwall fractional shortening (mFS), left ventricular mass and indexed left ventricular mass for body surface area (BSA) and birth weight were used in assessment of left ventricular systolic performance. RESULTS: The early deceleration time was longer, resulting in higher early integral and early filling fraction (EFF) in the IDM than in the control infants (p<0.01). In the IDM, the fractional shortening was somewhat greater and the left ventricular mass/body surface area ratio was higher than in the control group (p<0.05), although the measures of systolic performance were within the normal range. There were no significant differences in the systolic or diastolic function parameters between the gestational and pregestational groups. CONCLUSION: In the infants of mothers with well-controlled pregestational or gestational diabetes, we found prolonged deceleration time of early left ventricular diastolic filling, probably reflecting an impaired left ventricular relaxation rather than compliance. The mechanism for the findings may be maternal hyperglycemia during the third trimester and subsequent fetal hyperinsulinaemia leading to neonatal cardiac hypertrophy.     

Dermatoglyphic Patterns in Cystic Fibrosis Children

Objective: It is believed that fingerprints and palm patterns may represent genetically determined congenital abnormalities in Cystic Fibrosis (CF). The main idea of this paper was to determine differences of fingerprints and palm patterns in CF and normal children. Methods: Forty-six CF children (27 males, 19 females) and 341 (113 males, 228 females) healthy individuals were recruited for this study. Fingerprint patterns, Total ridge count (TRC) of each finger, a-b ridge count, and atd angles of all participants were recorded. Asymmetry of the right and left hand for each value was determined and dissimilarity in fingerprint patterns between homologous fingers was compared using Chi-square analysis, Mann-Whitney U test and Fisher''s exact test. Findings: There were significant differences in the mean TRC of the right digit IV (P=0.009), left digit III (P=0.02), left digit IV (P=0.03), and left digit V (P=0.03). Furthermore, we found significant differences in right atd angel (P=0.001), left atd angel (P=0.002), right a-b ridge (P=0.007) and left a-b ridge (P=0.001). In contrast, we found no significant differences in atd angle asymmetry, a-b ridge count asymmetry and pattern dissimilarity score between both groups (P>0.05). Conclusion: Dermatoglyphic characteristics could be used as a supplementary diagnostic method in CF children.Key Words: Dermatglyphics, Cystic Fibrosis, Palm Patterns, Fingerprints, Children     

Second to fourth finger ratio and possible precursors of developmental psychopathology in preschool children

BACKGROUND: The influence of sex steroids upon brain development has been suggested to mediate sex differences in developmental psychopathology. The ratio of the length of index finger or second finger to the ring finger or fourth finger (the 2D:4D ratio) appears to be a marker of early sex hormone exposure, with low 2D:4D associated with high prenatal testosterone and high 2D:4D associated with high prenatal oestrogen. This relationship allows a non-invasive measure of the long-term influence of prenatal sex steroids. Behaviours such as hyperactivity and poor social cognition are common in preschoolers. An association between 2D:4D and these possible precursors of psychopathology would be most readily identified in this group. AIM: To identify relationships between 2D:4D ratio and behaviours in preschool children which constitute possible precursors of developmental psychopathology. STUDY DESIGN: Population survey. METHOD: The 2D:4D ratio was measured in a group of preschool children and behavioural questionnaires were given to parents and teachers. RESULTS: Sex differences in behaviours were small, whilst correlations with 2D:4D were strong. Low 2D:4D was related to hyperactivity and poor social cognitive function in girls, and high 2D:4D with emotional symptoms in boys. CONCLUSIONS: We suggest that during early brain development androgens increase the probability of hyperactivity and poor social cognition in girls. Early oestrogens increase the probability of emotional problems in boys.