Anatomic location of penetrating lower-extremity trauma predicts compartment syndrome development

Background

Compartment syndrome of the lower extremity can be a difficult diagnosis to make with serious consequences if diagnosis and intervention is delayed. Identifying patients who are more likely to develop this syndrome can help prevent the associated complications. The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether the anatomic location of the penetrating lower-extremity injuries can predict development of compartment syndrome.

Methods

A retrospective chart review was performed of all patients admitted for a minimum of 23 hours to the University of South Alabama trauma center for penetrating lower-extremity trauma during the 8-year period from July 1998 through June 2006. Patients were entered in the study if wound trajectory was confined to the lower extremity between the inguinal ligament and the ankle. Injuries were categorized as above knee (AK) or below knee (BK), and whether the injury was in the proximal or distal half of the extremity segment. Clinical examination or compartmental pressures were used to diagnose BK compartment syndrome.

Results

A total of 321 patients sustained 393 lower-extremity injuries during the study period, of which 255 (65%) were AK and 138 (35%) were BK. Thirty-one (8%) lower extremities developed BK compartment syndrome with 29 (94%) secondary to penetrating injuries of the BK segment. All BK injuries that developed compartment syndrome were located in the proximal half of the BK segment. Eighteen (7%) AK injuries underwent BK 4-compartment fasciotomy, 16 (6%) of which were prophylactic after surgical intervention for AK vascular injury. Two patients (1%) developed postoperative BK compartment syndrome after superficial femoral vein ligation. All AK injuries that underwent fasciotomy sustained vascular injuries requiring surgical intervention. No BK compartment syndromes occurred in any patients with expectantly managed AK or distal BK injuries.

Conclusions

Injuries to the proximal half of the BK segment are the most common cause for the development of compartment syndrome from penetrating injuries of the lower extremity. Development of BK compartment syndrome because of penetrating AK injury is rare without an associated surgically significant vascular injury. Observational admission for compartment syndrome development in patients with penetrating injury to the AK segment or distal BK segment is unnecessary.     

The use of pulse oximetry in the compartment syndrome]

After conservative therapy of a left-sided radius fracture a 14-year-old patient developed a compartment syndrome; within 24 h, that required immediate surgical intervention. Despite palpable peripheral pulsation of the radial and ulnar arteries, it was not possible to measure the arterial oxygen saturation by pulse oximetry on the forefinger and fifth finger of the left hand, so that a compartment syndrome due to a disorder of perfusion could be diagnosed. After fasciotomy, it became possible to measure the oxygen saturation by pulse oximetry as well as plethysmographic visualization of the pulse curve. In this case pulse oximetry confirmed the indication for surgical intervention and immediately demonstrated its success.     

Abdominal compartment syndrome with massive lower-extremity edema caused by colonic obstruction and distention

Abdominal compartment syndrome is a well-described condition in which increased intra-abdominal pressure causes various physiologic derangements with adverse effects on cardiac, pulmonary, and renal function. A patient presented with radiation-induced distal colonic obstruction, abdominal distention, and severe bilateral leg edema. We performed a diverting transverse loop colostomy as treatment for her obstruction. This resulted in massive, spontaneous diuresis with complete resolution of her lower-limb edema. Abdominal compartment syndrome due to colonic obstruction can contribute to the development of lower-extremity edema. Colon decompression with reduction of intra-abdominal pressure can lead to resolution of edema in this situation.     

The diagnosis of acute compartment syndrome: a review

Delay in the diagnosis of acute compartment syndrome (ACS) has serious and sometimes catastrophic consequences for the outcome of injury, and has been recognised as one of the primary causes of a poor outcome. This article reviews the evidence for the use of clinical findings and intra-compartmental pressure (ICP) monitoring in making a prompt diagnosis of ACS. Clinical findings have poor sensitivities (13–64 %) compared to ICP monitoring (94 %) using a differential pressure threshold of less than 30 mmHg for more than 2 h. The specificities of clinical findings range from 63 to 98 % compared to a value of 98 % for ICP monitoring. Patients at risk of ACS or at risk of a delayed diagnosis are defined, and it is recommended that these patients undergo ICP monitoring. It is recommended that decompression is carried out primarily on the basis of the differential pressure being less than 30 mmHg for more than 2 h as this results in a reduced time to definitive treatment when compared to waiting for the development of clinical symptoms and signs.     

Absolute compartment pressure versus differential pressure for the diagnosis of compartment syndrome in tibial fractures

We studied 39 patients with 42 diaphyseal tibial fractures in whom we suspected a high risk for the development of a compartment syndrome. We measured the anterior absolute compartment pressure (ACP) every 12 h for 72 h and also recorded the differential pressure (ΔP=diastolic blood pressure−ACP). Fasciotomy of the extremity was only performed when the differential pressure was less than 30 mmHg for more than 30 min. The highest values of the ACP were recorded between 24 h and 36 h after admission. Three fractures had a differential pressure less than 30 mmHg and all were treated by fasciotomy. In three fractures the ACP was equal to or higher than 50 mmHg, of which two had a differential pressure less than 30 mmHg. The patients were followed up for a mean of 36 months (29–45). All fractures healed, and none of our patients showed any sequelae of compartment syndrome at their last review.

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Résumé Nous avons étudié 39 malades avec 42 fractures tibiales diaphysaires que nous avons suspecté d'un syndrome compartimental. Nous avons mesuré la pression du compartiment antérieure (ACP) chaque 12 h pendant 72 h et avons aussi enregistré la pression différentielle (ΔP=tension diastolique−ACP). Une fasciotomie de la jambe a été exécutée seulement quand la pression différentielle était inférieure à 30 mmHg pendant plus de 30 min. Les plus hautes valeurs de l'ACP ont été enregistrées entre 24 et 36 h après l'admission. Trois fractures avaient une pression différentielle de moins de 30 mmHg et toutes ont été traitées par fasciotomie. Dans trois fractures l'ACP était égale ou supérieure à 50 mmHg , avec, pour deux, une pression différentielle de moins de 30 mmHg. Les malades ont été suivis pendant une moyenne de 36 mois (29–45). Toutes les fractures ont guéri et aucun de nos malades n'a montré de séquelle d'un syndrome de compartiment à la dernière révision.

     

足部外伤合并筋膜间室综合征的诊治

目的 探讨足部损伤合并肌筋膜间室综合征诊断及治疗方法。方法 对128例较严重的足部闭合性损伤患者，应用Whiteside法行足部肌筋膜间室内压力监测，其中12例间室内平均压力为5．3(4．0～6．6)kPa，行前足背侧及足后内侧入路肌筋膜间室切开减压术，同时行骨折复位克氏针及斯氏针内固定术。术后继续监测各筋膜间室内压力，术后5～7d行刃厚皮片覆盖创面。结果 10例患者平均随访18(12～24)个月。3例行走或站立时间过长时足弓部及足跟部疼痛，其中1例出现前足僵硬、爪形趾、软组织萎缩及运动功能异常；其余7例足部功能正常，恢复正常工作。结论 对于较严重的闭合性足部损伤，肌筋膜间室内压测定是诊断足部肌筋膜间室综合征的可靠方法，治疗方法应根据足部各肌筋膜间室内压测定结果而行减压。     

肌酸激酶在骨筋膜室综合征早期诊断中的意义

目的 为早期诊断骨筋膜室综合征，降低其致残率，提供一项简便、易行的生化指标。方法 对２７例骨筋膜室综合征患者分别测定血清肌酸激酶 及筋膜室压力，其中１５例作筋膜室切开减压，取肌肉标本进行组织学检查。结果 肌酸激酶 值与肌肉组织病理变化程度一致。结论 肌酸激酶 值测定可用于骨筋膜室综合征的早期诊断及评估预后。     

骨筋膜室综合征的早期诊断与治疗

骨筋膜室综合征是筋膜间室肌肉和神经急性缺血而出现的早期症状和体征,若得不到及时治疗,可迅速发展为肌肉坏死,肢体功能丧失,甚至危及生命.我院自1995年7月至2008年7月共收治55例骨筋膜室综合征患者,通过早期诊断与正确治疗,取得了良好的效果,现报告如下.     

腹腔间隔室综合征23例诊治分析

目的 探讨腹腔间隔室综合征（abdominal compartment syndrome,ACS）的病因、诊断和治疗.方法 回顾性分析鞍山市中心医院2006年1月至2013年6月收治的ACS 23例的临床资料.23例中,男性16例,女性7例;年龄35～67岁,平均45岁;未手术4例,手术治疗19例.结果 痊愈20例（86.9％）：未手术3例,术中切口一期缝合者6例,腹壁切口部分敞开4例,Proceed补片和三升袋缝合皮下筋膜7例.死亡3例（13.1％）：拒绝手术及腹主动脉瘤卒中死亡.结论 应及早诊断,及时采取腹腔减压措施.对于重症急性胰腺炎患者,如果膀胱内压大于25 mmHg时,也具有手术探查指征.ACS患者经开腹腹腔减压术后,可用暂时关腹的方法.术中给予腹壁切口部分敞开及各种暂时关腹的方法是提高治愈率的关键.     

The significance of intracompartmental pressures in the diagnosis of chronic exertional compartment syndrome

Chronic exertional compartment syndrome is one cause of pain in the lower extremity, a common disability in athletes. The significance of intracompartmental pressures in the diagnosis of chronic exertional compartment syndrome is somewhat controversial. The goal of this study was to review the compartment pressure tests in a group of patients that underwent fasciotomy for refractory exertional compartment syndrome and to compare these pressures with an asymptomatic control group. The results are presented and compared with those of previous studies.     

The abdominal compartment syndrome

The abdominal compartment syndrome refers to the alterations in respiratory mechanics, hemodynamic parameters and renal function that occur as a result of a sustained increase in intra-abdominal pressure. The syndrome may follow a diverse series of insults, including laparotomy for severe abdominal trauma, ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm and intra-abdominal infection. Diagnosis depends on recognizing the clinical picture in patients at risk, followed by an objective measurement of intra-abdominal pressure. Successful management may require abdominal decompression with temporary abdominal closure. Despite urgent decompression, the death rate is high because of the severity of the patients’ underlying illness.     

The 'occult' compartment syndrome

Two cases of compartment syndromes after tibial fractures are presented in patients who had no sensation in the involved compartments. The absence of any clinical symptoms in these patients emphasizes the need for routine monitoring of intra-compartmental pressure in this select group of patients.     

The abdominal compartment syndrome

The abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) causes dysfunctions of various organs through a progressive unphysiologic increase of the intraabdominal pressure. While the primary ACS is a result of the underlying disease/injury, secondary ACS is caused by surgical interventions. In the severely injured patient intra- and/or retroperitoneal bleeding, edema of viscera due to systemic ischemia reperfusion injury following hemorrhagic shock, abdominal/pelvic packing, and laparotomy closure under tension lead to ACS. The clinical signs of ACS are a tense abdomen with a decreased abdominal wall compliance. Early signs of ACS are a rise in inspiratory pressure and oliguria. Manifest ACS results in anuria, respiratory failure, reduced intestinal perfusion, and low cardiac output syndrome. If untreated, patients die due to left ventricular failure. Diagnosis of ACS is made using the patient's history including the injury pattern, the symptoms, the time period between injury and the occurrence of organ dysfunctions, and the physiologic response to decompression. Frequent determinations of the bladder pressure represent the "golden standard" for early recognition of ACS. Decompressive laparotomy should be performed with a bladder pressure > or = 20 mmHg and rapidly restores impaired organ functions. In the case of a multiple injured patients in shock or with associated severe head injury decompressive laparotomy may even be carried out at a lower bladder pressure. The abdomen is left open. In most patients staged laparotomy is necessary. The final closure of the abdominal wall is carried out after the edema have resolved between day 6 and 8 after primary laparotomy.     

Chronic compartment syndrome: diagnosis and management.

Young people active in sports, especially cyclists, runners and soccer players, may develop a chronic compartment syndrome, typically after a few years of athletic involvement. Complaints frequently appear when the intensity or frequency of training is increased. It is remarkable that runners develop mainly an anterior compartment syndrome, whereas soccer players and cyclists suffer mostly from a deep posterior compartment syndrome. The chief complaint is a cramp-like pain and weakness in the lower leg during effort. A compartmental tissue-pressure measurement must be performed to evaluate the severity of the compartment syndrome and to determine which compartments are involved. A clear clinical history and abnormal values of tissue-pressure measurements are indicative for a fascial release of the involved compartments and help assure a satisfactory result after surgery.     

The peroneal compartment syndrome

Summary The management of a patient who presented ten days after the onset of a peroneal compartment syndrome is described. The frequency, pathogenesis and treatment of the condition is discussed.

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Résumé Observation d'un cas de syndrome de la loge des péroniers, vu au 10ème jour. Les auteurs discutent de la fréquence, de la pathogénie et du traitement de cette affection.

     

Thigh compartment syndrome: diagnosis and surgical treatment

Thigh compartment syndrome is uncommon and may go unrecognized. Signs and symptoms include a history of thigh swelling and/or hematoma and pain after minor injury in a patient who is anticoagulated. Surgical approaches to the deep thigh compartments are described.     

Chronic exertional compartment syndrome: diagnosis and management

During exercise, muscular expansion and swelling occur. Chronic exertional compartment syndrome represents abnormally increased compartment pressures and pain in the involved extremity secondary to a noncompliant musculofascial compartment. Most commonly, it occurs in the lower leg, but has been reported in the thigh, foot, upper extremity, and erector spinae musculature. The diagnosis is obtained through a careful history and physical exam, reproduction of symptoms with exertion, and pre- and post-exercise muscle tissue compartment pressure recordings. It has been postulated that increased compartment pressures lead to transient ischemia and pain in the involved extremity. However; this is not universally accepted. Other than complete cessation of causative activities, nonoperative management of CECS is usually unsuccessful. Surgical release of the involved compartments is recommended for patients who wish to continue to exercise.