Early maternal rejection affects the development of monoaminergic systems and adult abusive parenting in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta)

This study investigated the effects of early exposure to variable parenting style and infant abuse on cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) concentrations of monoamine metabolites and examined the role of monoaminergic function in the intergenerational transmission of infant abuse in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Forty-three infants reared by their biological mothers and 15 infants that were cross-fostered at birth and reared by unrelated mothers were followed longitudinally through their first 3 years of life or longer. Approximately half of the infants were reared by abusive mothers and half by nonabusive controls. Abused infants did not differ from controls in CSF concentrations of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA), homovanillic acid (HVA), or 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylgycol (MHPG). Abused infants, however, were exposed to higher rates of maternal rejection, and highly rejected infants had lower CSF 5-HIAA and HVA than low-rejection infants. The abused females who became abusive mothers in adulthood had lower CSF 5-HIAA than the abused females who did not. A similar trend was also observed among the cross-fostered females, suggesting that low serotonergic function resulting from early exposure to high rates of maternal rejection plays a role in the intergenerational transmission of infant abuse.     

Consistency and change in the behavior of rhesus macaque abusive mothers with successive infants

This study investigated the abusive behavior and parenting styles of 7 rhesus macaque mothers with infants born in 2 consecutive years. All subjects lived in captive social groups and were observed during the first 12 weeks of infant life. With the exception of 1 individual, mothers were generally consistent in the frequency with which they abused their successive infants. Similarities were also found in the temporal course of infant abuse, the use of the most common pattern of abuse, and some measures of parenting style, notably those reflecting maternal protectiveness. The findings of this study are discussed in relation to different hypothesized relationships between infant abuse and parenting style in macaques. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Dev Psychobiol 34: 29–35, 1999     

Hormones and behavior in rhesus macaque abusive and nonabusive mothers. 2. Mother-infant interactions

This study investigated the differences in parenting style and hormonal variables in abusive and nonabusive rhesus macaque mothers during the first 2 months of lactation. All subjects lived in large social groups in outdoor corrals. Abusive mothers were more protective and more rejecting of their infants than nonabusive mothers, particularly in the first month.Abusive and nonabusive mothers did not differ in levels of circulating estradiol (E2) and progesterone (P) during the periparturitional period except that the decrease in P after parturition was less marked in abusive than in nonabusive mothers. Individual differences in periparturitional E2 or P were not correlated with differences in parenting style. Mothers with higher frequencies of abuse, however, had significantly higher values of the E2-to-P ratio in the last week of pregnancy and significantly lower values of P in the first week of lactation than mothers with lower frequencies of abuse. Although pregnancy or lactation hormones are unlikely to be one of the main determinants of abusive behavior, endocrine variables may interact with personality characteristics or environmental factors in causing this phenomenon.     

Maternal HIV Infection: Parenting and Early Child Development

Examined whether support could offset the potential stress ofmaternal HIV infection with regard to parenting and early childdevelopment in two studies of low income, urban, drug-usingmothers of infants and toddlers. In one study, support was providedthrough home intervention; in the other, support was measuredthrough self-report. There were few differences in parentingand early child development related to maternal HIV infection.HIV+ mothers reported less child-related stress among theirtoddlers, more normative levels of child abuse potential following18 months of home intervention, and displayed more positiveinvolvement with their children. Results, interpreted from ecologicaltheory, suggest that although the early stages of maternal HIVinfection may have been too distal to influence the lives ofhigh-risk mothers of infants and toddlers, when differencesexisted, HIV+ mothers demonstrated more positive attitudes andbehaviors toward parenting and were more able to benefit fromhome intervention than HIV– mothers.     

Opioids and attachment in rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) abusive mothers

This study investigated the role of the endogenous opioid system in maternal and affiliative behavior of group-living rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) mothers with a history of abusive parenting. Eighteen mothers received an injection of the opioid antagonist naltrexone or saline for 5 days per week for the first 4 weeks of the infant's life. After treatment, mother-infant pairs were focally observed. Naltrexone did not significantly affect infant abuse or other measures of maternal behavior. Naltrexone increased the amount of grooming received by mothers from other group members and reduced the mothers' rate of displacement activities such as scratching, yawning, and self-grooming. These results concur with previous primate studies in suggesting that opioids mediate the rewarding effects of receiving grooming and affect anxiety-related behaviors.     

Collaboration between child welfare and substance-abuse fields: combined treatment programs for mothers

OBJECTIVE: To review collaboration between child welfare and drug-abuse fields in providing treatment to mothers who abuse drugs and maltreat their children. METHODS: Literature review of studies examining effects of maternal drug abuse on parenting skills and outcomes of interventions for both maternal drug abuse and parenting skills. RESULTS: Parenting skills differ between mothers who do and do not abuse drugs, but these studies are primarily limited to mothers of infants and preschoolers. The evidence base for interventions to address both substance use and parenting in these mothers is growing, but more well-controlled studies are needed. Opportunities for improved collaboration between fields are presented. CONCLUSION: Progress has been made toward collaboration to address drug abuse and parenting skills of mothers who abuse drugs, but more integrated strategies are needed, especially for mothers who use drugs and maltreat their children.     

The Importance of Parenting During Early Childhood for School-Age Development

This study reports on the relation of 4 patterns of responsive parenting across early childhood (birth-4 1.2 years) with children's rate of cognitive and social development through 8 years of age for a cohort of children born preterm and of very low birthweight and term. Consistent responsiveness across early childhood predicted faster rates of cognitive and social growth than did inconsistent or minimal responsiveness, particularly for preterm children. As parenting at 6 and 8 years did not alter this relation, results suggest that parenting across early childhood plays a unique role in children's development. We also examined whether mothers could be facilitated to use a set of responsive behaviors across infancy that increased children's learning. Compared to control mothers, mothers randomly assigned to receive the intervention displayed greater changes in behaviors that established a social learning context supporting infants' object exploration and vocalization of interests. This, in turn, resulted in greater changes in infants' cognitive and social skills. As in the 1st study, preterm infants appeared to benefit to a greater extent from this more responsive social learning context.     

The importance of parenting during early childhood for school-age development

This study reports on the relation of 4 patterns of responsive parenting across early childhood (birth-4 1.2 years) with children's rate of cognitive and social development through 8 years of age for a cohort of children born preterm and of very low birthweight and term. Consistent responsiveness across early childhood predicted faster rates of cognitive and social growth than did inconsistent or minimal responsiveness, particularly for preterm children. As parenting at 6 and 8 years did not alter this relation, results suggest that parenting across early childhood plays a unique role in children's development. We also examined whether mothers could be facilitated to use a set of responsive behaviors across infancy that increased children's learning. Compared to control mothers, mothers randomly assigned to receive the intervention displayed greater changes in behaviors that established a social learning context supporting infants' object exploration and vocalization of interests. This, in turn, resulted in greater changes in infants' cognitive and social skills. As in the 1st study, preterm infants appeared to benefit to a greater extent from this more responsive social learning context.     

Individual differences in salivary cortisol and alpha-amylase in mothers and their infants: relation to tobacco smoke exposure

Tobacco smoke exposure affects the activity of both the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). Statistics reveal 41 million children in the U.S. are regularly exposed to tobacco smoke, but we know little about the effects of environmental tobacco smoke exposure on HPA and SNS activity in early childhood. This study assayed cotinine (a metabolite of nicotine), cortisol, and alpha-amylase (sAA) in the saliva of mother-infant dyads from 197 low income and ethnically diverse families. The dyads were identified as tobacco smoke exposed (N = 82) or nonexposed (N = 115) based on maternal self-reports of smoking and salivary cotinine levels greater or less than 10 ng/ml. As expected, higher rates of maternal smoking behavior were associated with higher levels of cotinine in mothers' and their infants' saliva. On average, smoking mothers' salivary cotinine levels were 281 times higher compared to their nonsmoking counterparts, and 23 times higher compared to their own infant's salivary cotinine levels. Infants of smoking mothers had salivary cotinine levels that were four times higher than infants with nonsmoking mothers. Mothers who smoked had higher salivary cortisol levels and lower sAA activity compared to nonsmoking mothers. There were no associations between maternal smoking behavior, infant's salivary cotinine levels, or tobacco exposure group, and cortisol or sAA measured in infant's saliva. The findings are discussed in relation to the influence of smoking tobacco on the validity of salivary biomarkers of stress.     

A Three-Generational Study of Transmission of Risk for Sexual Abuse

This intergenerational study investigates histories of both attachment relationships and abusive experiences and domains of current functioning that distinguish families of sexually abused children from families of nonabused children. The participants included (a) 199 nonoffending African American mothers of whom approximately half had children with documented sexual abuse histories and half had children with no documented abuse histories and (b) 106 maternal grandmothers of these children; approximately half had sexually abused grandchildren and half had grandchildren with no documented abuse. The children were 4 to 12 years old. Histories of abuse and attachment experiences and current functioning of the grandmother and mother were evaluated. Logistic regression analyses revealed that sexual abuse in a child was best predicted by 3 factors: maternal problems in adult functioning, a currently negative relationship between the grandmother and mother, and a disrupted pattern of caregiving during the mother's childhood. The findings underscore that troubled intergenerational attachment relationships in families can significantly heighten the risk of a child being sexually abused.     

A three-generational study of transmission of risk for sexual abuse.

This intergenerational study investigates histories of both attachment relationships and abusive experiences and domains of current functioning that distinguish families of sexually abused children from families of nonabused children. The participants included (a) 199 nonoffending African American mothers of whom approximately half had children with documented sexual abuse histories and half had children with no documented abuse histories and (b) 106 maternal grandmothers of these children; approximately half had sexually abused grandchildren and half had grandchildren with no documented abuse. The children were 4 to 12 years old. Histories of abuse and attachment experiences and current functioning of the grandmother and mother were evaluated. Logistic regression analyses revealed that sexual abuse in a child was best predicted by 3 factors: maternal problems in adult functioning, a currently negative relationship between the grandmother and mother, and a disrupted pattern of caregiving during the mother's childhood. The findings underscore that troubled intergenerational attachment relationships in families can significantly heighten the risk of a child being sexually abused.     

The role of psychopathology in the parenting of drug-dependent women

This paper explores the parenting of drug-dependent women and the contributions of comorbid psychopathology to their parenting. A sample of 32 children whose mothers were dependent on opioid drugs during pregnancy and 37 children whose mothers were not drug users were followed from birth to middle childhood. Multivariate regression analyses were conducted contrasting whether maternal substance abuse or psychopathology was more closely linked to parenting behaviors and continuity in parenting over time. Maternal drug dependence was related to whether mothers were able to remain primary caregivers for their children over time, even after controlling for psychopathology. Maternal drug use was related to unresponsive and negative parenting behavior during mother-infant interaction, but this relation was largely accounted for by the effects of comorbid maternal psychopathology on parenting, particularly symptoms of antisocial and related personality disorders. For those children whose mothers continued to care for them into middle childhood, perceptions of their mothers as rejecting were related to maternal antisocial personality and maternal depression. Substance-abuse treatment for women should be integrated with interventions addressing their mental health and parenting needs.     

Intergenerational effects of mother's early rearing experience on offspring treatment and socioemotional development

This longitudinal study spans two generations of rhesus monkeys. First, the study investigates the effects of early rearing experiences on the maternal behavior of first-generation mothers (rates of premature infant rejection) and, second, the study investigates the effects of maternal rejection on the behavior of second-generation infants. Rhesus macaque mother–infant dyads (Macaca mulatta—N = 176) were observed twice weekly, with each session lasting 300 s. First-generation mothers were raised in one of three conditions: as mother-reared controls (MR; [n = 95]), in peer groups (PR; raised without adults but with constant access to three same-aged peers [n = 49]), or with an inanimate surrogate (SPR; raised with an inanimate fleece-covered, surrogate mother and limited daily peer-group interactions [n = 32]). Second-generation infants were all raised by their differentially reared mothers and statistically grouped into one of two groups: those that were rejected by their mothers beginning at a more-typical weaning age (controls), starting in the third month of life (n = 108), and those that were prematurely rejected, with mothers showing rejections before the third month of infant life (n = 68). Overall, PR mothers exhibited the highest rates of premature infant rejection, except for month 1 of infant life, when SPR mothers exhibited the highest rates of rejection. Intriguingly, after month 1, SPR mothers showed high rates of infant cradling and seldom rejected their infants. Independent of their mothers’ early rearing environment, prematurely rejected infants displayed more aggression and passive vigilance, and were cradled and groomed less by their mothers, and there was evidence that the overall rates of rejection after the first 2 months of life had a cumulative negative effect on the developing infant. Post hoc analyses of plasma cortisol levels showed that the prematurely rejected infants had higher cortisol concentrations, suggesting a high level of stress in the prematurely rejected infants. These results suggest that maternal presence during infancy has long-term effects on a female's future maternal skills which, in turn, have intergenerational consequences for the socioemotional development of second-generation infants.     

Mothers' dopamine receptor polymorphism modulates the relation between infant fussiness and sensitive parenting

We determined whether the combination of the 48‐bp variable number tandem repeat polymorphism of the dopamine (DRD4) gene and infants' (fussy‐difficult) temperament predicted parenting sensitivity. The sample was comprised of 147 mothers and their 6‐month olds. Sensitive parenting was assessed by coding filmed interactions between mothers and infants. Infant temperament was assessed by parents' reports on a standard questionnaire. Moderated regressions models, with maternal education and infants' interactive behavior as controls, were used to test our hypotheses. Results showed no main effects of either temperament or DRD4, though the maternal DRD4 × infant temperament interaction was significant. Probes indicated that parents with a DRD4 7‐repeat allele behaved more sensitively to fussier infants and less sensitively to less fussy infants compared to parents without the 7‐repeat allele. Among those parents, sensitivity did not vary with infant temperament. This pattern of results indicates that mothers are differentially susceptible to infant fussiness, dependent on the presence of the 7‐repeat DRD4 allele. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Dev Psychobiol 52:149–157, 2010     

Effects of maternal style on infant behavior in Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata)

We assessed the association of maternal style and infant behavior of group-living Japanese macaques during the first year of infant development. We tested the hypothesis that different mothering styles were correlated with the behavioral repertoire of infants at three different developmental stages. We expected that infants of rejecting mothers would show a higher level of enterprise and that infants of protective mothers would be less interested in the external environment. We found evidence that maternal style affects infant behavior during the early developmental phase, but this influence becomes smaller as the infant grows older and approaches complete independence. Maternal protectiveness appears to have long-lasting effects on infant exploration as infants of protective mothers tended to be less attracted by the external environment. On the other hand, mater- nal rejection appears to have long-lasting effects on infant interaction with other group members as more rejected infants tended to initiate a significantly higher number of contacts with other juveniles and adults. These results suggest that both maternal rejection and maternal protectiveness play an important role in the independence of the offspring, in opposite directions. That is, rejection promotes independence whereas protectiveness delays it.     

Mother–infant bonding impairment across the first 6 months postpartum: the primacy of psychopathology in women with childhood abuse and neglect histories

Our goal was to examine the trajectory of bonding impairment across the first 6 months postpartum in the context of maternal risk, including maternal history of childhood abuse and neglect and postpartum psychopathology, and to test the association between self-reported bonding impairment and observed positive parenting behaviors. In a sample of women with childhood abuse and neglect histories (CA+, n?=?97) and a healthy control comparison group (CA?, n?=?53), participants completed questionnaires related to bonding with their infants at 6 weeks, 4 months, and 6 months postpartum and psychopathology at 6 months postpartum. In addition, during a 6-month postpartum home visit, mothers and infants participated in a dyadic play interaction subsequently coded for positive parenting behaviors by blinded coders. We found that all women, independent of risk status, increased in bonding with their infant over the first 6 months postpartum; however, women with postpartum psychopathology (depression and posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD]) showed consistently greater bonding impairment scores at all timepoints. Moreover, we found that, at the 6-month assessment, bonding impairment and observed parenting behaviors were significantly associated. These results highlight the adverse effects of maternal postpartum depression and PTSD on mother–infant bonding in early postpartum in women with child abuse and neglect histories. These findings also shed light on the critical need for early detection and effective treatment of postpartum mental illness in order to prevent problematic parenting and the development of disturbed mother–infant relationships. Results support the use of the Postpartum Bonding Questionnaire as a tool to assess parenting quality by its demonstrated association with observed parenting behaviors.     

Genealogical and demographic influences on infant abuse and neglect in group-living sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus atys)

This study investigated the occurrence of infant abuse and neglect in a large population of group-living mangabeys over a period of almost 3 decades. The prevalence of infant abuse and neglect did not differ significantly among the 9 families comprising the population, but within some families there was evidence of genealogical effects on infant abuse. Maternal inexperience and infant age were risk factors for neglect but not for abuse. Whereas neglecting mothers neglected only 1 of their offspring, usually their first-born infant, abusive mothers abused several of their offspring, and risk of severe abuse increased with later births. Infant sex was not a risk factor for neglect or abuse. These and other results concur with the findings of a previous investigation of infant abuse and neglect in a different primate species in indicating that neglect and abuse are different phenomena and in emphasizing genealogical influences on infant abuse in primates. The investigation of biological, experiential, and social determinants of the spontaneous occurrence of infant abuse and neglect in relatively undisturbed primate populations could significantly enhance our understanding of the etiology of child abuse and neglect in humans. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Dev Psychobiol 31: 175–180, 1997     

Developmental trajectories of externalizing and internalizing behaviors: factors underlying resilience in physically abused children

Using a multisite community sample of 585 children, this study examined how protective and vulnerability factors alter trajectories of teacher-reported externalizing and internalizing behavior from kindergarten through Grade 8 for children who were and were not physically abused during the first 5 years of life. Early lifetime history of physical abuse (11.8% of sample) was determined through interviews with mothers during the prekindergarten period; mothers and children provided data on vulnerability and protective factors. Regardless of whether the child was abused, being African American; being male; having low early social competence, low early socioeconomic status (SES), and low adolescent SES; and experiencing adolescent harsh discipline, low monitoring, and low parental knowledge were related to higher levels of externalizing problems over time. Having low early social competence, low early SES, low adolescent SES, and low proactive parenting were related to higher levels of internalizing problems over time. Furthermore, resilience effects, defined as significant interaction effects, were found for unilateral parental decision making (lower levels are protective of externalizing outcomes for abused children), early stress (lower levels are protective of internalizing outcomes for abused children), adolescent stress (lower levels are protective of internalizing outcomes for abused children), and hostile attributions (higher levels are protective of internalizing outcomes for abused children). The findings provide a great deal of support for an additive or main effect perspective on vulnerability and protective factors and some support for an interactive perspective. It appears that some protective and vulnerability factors do not have stronger effects for physically abused children, but instead are equally beneficial or harmful to children regardless of their abuse status.     

Impact on maternal parenting stress of receipt of genetic information regarding risk of diabetes in newborn infants.

Our objective was to investigate whether notification of high-risk status for type 1 diabetes in newborn infants results in an increased maternal-parenting stress level when compared with notification of low-risk status for type 1 diabetes. Maternal parenting stress level was assessed at 5-7 weeks postpartum (baseline) and was reassessed 4-5 months after parents were informed of their newborn infants' genetic screening results (follow-up). Parenting stress level was measured using the total stress score (TSS) of the Parenting Stress Index/Short Form. The outcome variable, change in TSS, was calculated by subtracting the baseline TSS from the follow-up TSS. Demographic variables such as maternal race, maternal age, maternal education level, maternal marital status, child's birth order, and total family income were assessed through a structured phone interview at the time of baseline assessment. The risk factor of interest was the child's human leukocyte antigen (HLA) status for type 1 diabetes, i.e., whether child was at a high or moderate (combined into "high") genetic risk or at a low genetic risk for type 1 diabetes. A sample of 88 mothers (23 with a high-risk child and 65 with a low-risk child) was evaluated. Baseline median TSSs were 65 and 74 for mothers of low-risk infants and mothers of high-risk infants, respectively. Both groups' median TSS decreased between baseline and follow-up. No significant differences were found between change in TSS and maternal age, race, education level, marital status, total family income, or child's birth order. Although the median decrease in TSS was smaller in mothers with a high-risk child when compared with mothers of a low-risk child, this difference was not statistically significant. We did not find an association between newborn's HLA status and change in maternal TSS. The results of this study suggest that notification of high-risk status for type 1 diabetes in newborn infants may not result in an increased level of parenting stress among mothers.     

Effective treatment for postpartum depression is not sufficient to improve the developing mother-child relationship

Maternal depression is prevalent, and puts children at risk. Little evidence addresses whether treatment for maternal depression is sufficient to improve child outcomes. An experiment was conducted testing whether psychotherapeutic treatment for mothers, suffering from major depression in the postpartum period, would result in improved parenting and child outcomes. Participants included depressed women randomly assigned to interpersonal psychotherapy (n = 60) or to a waitlist (n = 60), and a nondepressed comparison group (n = 56). At 6 months, depressed mothers were less responsive to their infants, experienced more parenting stress, and viewed their infants more negatively than did nondepressed mothers. Treatment affected only parenting stress, which improved significantly but was still higher than that for nondepressed mothers. Eighteen months later, treated depressed mothers still rated their children lower in attachment security, higher in behavior problems, and more negative in temperament than nondepressed mothers. Initial response to treatment did not predict reduced risk for poor child outcomes. Early maternal negative perceptions of the child predicted negative temperament and behavior problems 18 months after treatment. Treatment for depression in the postpartum period should target the mother-infant relationship in addition to the mothers' depressive symptoms.