Acute acalculous cholecystitis in children

Acute acalculous cholecystitis(AAC) is the inflammatory disease of the gallbladder in the absence of gallstones. AAC is estimated to represent at least 50% to 70% of all cases of acute cholecystitis during childhood. Although this pathology was originally described in critically ill or post-surgical patients, most pediatric cases have been observed during several infectious diseases. In addition to cases caused by bacterial and parasitic infections, most pediatric reports after 2000 described children developing AAC during viral illnesses(such as Epstein-Barr virus and hepatitis A virus infections). Moreover, some pediatric cases have been associated with several underlying chronic diseases and, in particular, with immune-mediated disorders. Here, we review the epidemiological aspects of pediatric AAC, and we discuss etiology, pathophysiology and clinical management, according to the cases reported in the medical literature.     

Clinical predictors of severe gallbladder complications in acute acalculous cholecystitis

AIM: To evaluate the relationship between clinical information (including age, laboratory data, and sonographic findings) and severe complications, such as gangrene, perforation, or abscess, in patients with acute acalculous cholecystitis (AAC). METHODS: The medical records of patients hospitalized from January 1997 to December 2002 with a diagnosis of acute cholecystitis were retrospectively reviewed to find those with AAC, confirmed at operation or by histologic examination. Data collected included age, sex, white blood cell count, AST, total bilirubin, alkaline phosphatase, bacteriology, mortality, and sonographic findings. The sonographic findings were recorded on a 3-point scale with 1 point each for gallbladder distention, gallbladder wall thickness >3.5 mm, and sludge. The patients were divided into 2 groups based on the presence (group A) or absence (group B) of severe gallbladder complications, defined as perforation, gangrene, or abscess. RESULTS: There were 52 cases of AAC, accounting for 3.7% of all cases of acute cholecystitis. Males predominated. Most patients were diagnosed by ultrasonography (48 of 52) or computed tomography (17 of 52). Severe gallbladder complications were present in 27 patients (52%, group A) and absent in 25 (group B). Six patients died with a mortality of 12%. Four of the 6 who died were in group A. Patients in group A were significantly older than those in group B (mean 60.88 y vs. 54.12 y, P=0.04) and had a significantly higher white blood cell count (mean 15,885.19 vs. 9,948.40, P=0.0005). All the 6 patients who died had normal white blood cell counts with an elevated percentage of band forms. The most commonly cultured bacteria in both blood and bile were E. coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae. The cumulative sonographic points did not reliably distinguish between groups A and B, even though group A tended to have more points. CONCLUSION: Older patients with a high white cell count are more likely to have severe gallbladder complications. In these patients, earlier surgical intervention should be considered if the sonographic findings support the diagnosis of AAC.     

Acalculous cholecystitis due to Salmonella enteritidis

Acute acalculous cholecystitis （AAC） is defined as an acute inflammation of the gallbladder in the absence of stones. We herein report a case of a young man who developed AAC after a Salmonella enteritidis gastrointestinal infection.     

Acute acalculous cholecystitis induced by mesenteric inflammatory veno-occlusive disease (MIVOD) in systemic lupus erythematosus

A 43-year-old woman with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) was treated for lupus pleurisy. During the course of her illness, she abruptly suffered severe right hypochondriac pain and high-grade fever. Abdominal ultrasonography revealed a thickening of the gallbladder wall without cholelithiasis, and she was diagnosed with acute acalculous cholecystitis (AAC). Laparoscopic cholecystostomy was performed. Pathological examination revealed lymphocytic venulitis without arteritis. Antiphospholipid antibodies were not demonstrated during the course of illness. From these findings, the cause of AAC was revealed as a mesenteric inflammatory veno-occlusive disease (MIVOD), which is a novel venopathy mainly affecting the mesenteric vein and/or its branches, causing serious ischemic complications. MIVOD should be considered as a possible cause of AAC.Abbreviations AAC Acute acalculous cholecystitis - APS Antiphospholipid syndrome - APTT Activated prothromboplastin time - CRP C-reactive protein - LC Lupus anticoagulant - MVT Mesenteric venous thrombosis - MIVOD Mesenteric inflammatory veno-occlusive disease - SLE Systemic lupus erythematosus     

Acute acalculous cholecystitis immediately after gastric operation:Case report and literatures review

Acute acalculous cholecystitis(AAC)is a rare complication of gastric surgery.The most commonly accepted concepts regarding its pathogenesis are bile stasis,sepsis and ischemia,but it has not been well described how to identify and manage this disease in the early stage.We report three cases of AAC in elderly patients immediately after gastric surgery,which were treated with three different strategies.One patient died 42 d after emergency cholecystectomy,and the other two finally recovered through timely cholecystostomy and percutaneous transhepatic gallbladder drainage,respectively.These cases informed us of the value of early diagnosis and proper treatment for perioperative AAC after gastric surgery.We further reviewed reported cases of AAC immediately after gastric operation,which may expand our knowledge of this disease.     

Acute acalculous cholecystitis in malaria: a review of seven cases from an adult cohort

Purpose and methods

Acute acalculous cholecystitis (AAC) is an uncommon condition related to serious clinical conditions, such as surgery, trauma, burn injuries and sepsis. The diagnosis of AAC remains challenging to make, since it generally occurs as a secondary event in acutely ill patients with another disease. Imaging evaluation is crucial, and well-known criteria are accepted for the diagnosis. To our knowledge, only case reports of AAC related to 12 malaria adult patients have been published. In this series, seven cases of AAC from a cohort of 42 adult patients with severe imported falciparum malaria [according to the World Health Organization (WHO) criteria] are presented. The aim is to report the cases and look for malaria conditions that may affect the incidence of this unusual malaria complication.

Results

Ultrasonography revealed gallbladder with wall thickening in all patients, plus other(s) major criteria. Each patient presented five to nine WHO severe malaria criteria: all had hyperparasitaemia and hyperbilirubinaemia. All patients developed renal failure, six pulmonary oedema/acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) (five were mechanically ventilated) and five shock. Treatment was non-operative in five patients, cutaneous cholecystostomy was done in two and the outcome was favourable in all.

Conclusions

Patients with AAC have significantly more commonly five or more criteria of severe malaria: renal insufficiency, pulmonary oedema/ARDS, parasitaemia higher than 30 %, nosocomial infection and a prolonged intensive care unit (ICU) stay. Increased awareness for this unusual and potentially severe complication of malaria is needed.     

Computed tomography as an adjunct to ultrasound in the diagnosis of acute acalculous cholecystitis

The sonographic and computed tomographic (CT) findings were reviewed in 17 patients with acute acalculous cholecystitis (AAC) over a 6-year period from 1984 to 1989. Of the six patients in whom both ultrasound and CT were performed, CT revealed marked gallbladder (GB) wall abnormalities, including perforation, and pericholecystic fluid collections in five patients not demonstrated by sonography. Of the total group, five patients had GB wall thicknesses of less than or equal to 3 mm (normal) at pathologic examination, which demonstrated a spectrum of disease ranging from acute hemorrhagic/necrotizing, to gangrenous acalculous cholecystitis with perforation. Sonography was falsely negative or significantly underestimated the severity of AAC in seven of the 13 patients examined by sonography. CT because of its superior ability to assess pericholecystic inflammation may provide additional diagnostic information even after a thorough sonographic study in cases of AAC.     

胆道梗阻对胆囊动力及Cajal间质细胞形态的影响

目的 探讨胆道梗阻诱发急性非结石性胆囊炎(AAC)对胆囊Cajal间质细胞超微结构的影响,并初步探究胆囊平滑肌收缩障碍的可能机制.方法 健康成年豚鼠60只,胆总管结扎(BDL)方法构建豚鼠AAC模型.平均分为5组,即假手术对照组(Sham)、BDLl2h(BDL-12)、24h (BDL-24)、48h(BDL-48)以及72h(BDL-72)组.到实验时间后收集胆囊标本,HE染色后光学显微镜观察各组胆囊病理改变.每只胆囊取3条肌条(8 mm×3 mm),固定于恒温浴槽,分别给予不同浓度的八肽胆囊收缩素(CCK-8,1010 mmol/L、109 mmol/L、10-8 mmol/L、107 mmol/L和10-6mmol/L)、乙酰胆碱(Ach,108 mmol/L、107 mmol/L、106 mmol/L、105 mmol/L和10-4 mmol/L)以及KCI(60 mmmol/L),利用张力换能器记录胆囊平滑肌肌条的收缩活动.采用透射电镜检测Sham 组、BDL-12组和BDL-72组豚鼠胆囊Cajal问质细胞的形态学改变.结果 Sham组和BDL-12组未见明显炎性反应;与Sham组相比,BDL-48组及BDL-72组胆囊组织病理学评分差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05).加入CCK-8、Ach和KCI后,各组胆囊平滑肌收缩振幅均增加,且呈浓度依赖性;与Sham组相比,各组效应值均有下降,有统计学意义(P＜0.05).与Sham组相比,BDL-12组胆囊Cajal间质细胞形态发生改变,BDL-72组改变更为明显.结论 胆道梗阻可以诱发AAC.在AAC 早期胆囊炎症尚未发生时便可能有胆囊平滑肌的收缩障碍存在,而胆囊Cajal间质细胞可能是收缩障碍的一个重要中间环节.

Abstract：

Objective To explore the effect of biliary obstruction caused acute acalculous cholecystitis (AAC) on ultrastructure of gallbladder interstitial cells of Cajal (ICCs),and the possible mechanism of impaired contraction of gallbladder smooth muscle. Methods Total 60 healthy adult guinea pigs were in this study. The guinea pigs AAC model was induced by common bile duct ligation (BDL). The guinea pigs were divided into five groups equally,including sham control group (Sham),BDL for 12 hours (BDL-12),24 hours (BDL-24),48 hours (BDL-48) and 72 hours (BDL-72)groups. The gallbladder specimens were collected by the end of study. Gallbladder pathological changes were observed with HE staining under light microscope. Three muscle strips were collected of each gallbladder,fixed in constant temperature water bath with different concentration of eight peptide cholecystokinin agonist (CCK-8,1010 mmol/L,10-9 mmol/L,10-8 mmol/L,10-7 mmol/L and 10-6mmol/L),acetylcholine (Ach,10-8 mmol/L,107 mmol/L,10-6 mmol/L,10-5 mmol/L,10-4 mmol/L)and potassium chloride (KC1) (60 mmol/L). The contraction activity of gallbladder muscle strips was recorded by tonotransducer. The ultrastracture changes of gallbladder ICC in sham,BDL-12 and BDL-72 groups was examined by transmission electron microscopy. Results There was no obvious inflammation in Sham and BDL-12 groups. Compared with sham group,there were significant differences of biology score of gallbladder in BDL-48 and BDL-72 groups (P＜0. 05). After adding CCK-8,Ach and KC1,the contraction amplitude of gallbladder muscle increased in each group,and in dose-dependent manner. Compared with sham group,the effect value of each other groups decreased significantly (P＜0. 05). Compared with sham group,the morphology of ICC changed in BDL-12group,and more obvious in BDL-72 group. Conclusion Biliary obstruction can induce AAC. At the earlier stage of ACC,the impaired contraction of gallbladder smooth muscle present even without gallbladder inflammation occurrence. ICC may play an important role in impaired contraction.     

Acute Acalculous Cholecystitis Associated with Systemic Sepsis and Visceral Arterial Hypoperfusion: A Case Series and Review of Pathophysiology

Acute acalculous cholecystitis (AAC) is marked by a very high mortality rate but its relative rarity makes its features obscure to many physicians. This often contributes to a delayed diagnosis. In this study, we review one center's experience, examine the clinical features of the disorder, and describe the progression of pathological events that culminate in AAC. We performed a 10-year retrospective review of cases of AAC reported at our institution between 1988 and 1998. Fifteen cases of AAC were identified from this period, during which 5804 cardiovascular operations were performed. The mortality rate was 46.6%. Multiple organ failure was present in 12 of the 15 cases, and 9 of the patients were over 60 years of age. Prolonged hypotension occurred in 13 patients, and fever in all 15. Nine cases of gangrenous gallbladder occurred. Gram-negative septicemia was present in 12. Visceral arterial hypoperfusion was frequently evident at operation or necropsy. Thirteen patients showed clinical jaundice, a disproportionate elevation of the alkaline phosphatase, or both. Heart failure was found in 9 patients. Open cholecystectomy was most often the definitive intervention. Arterial hypoperfusion of the gut and or sepsis appear central to the pathogenesis of AAC in our series. Gallbladder inflammation and cholestasis result and bacterial invasion of the organ ensues, culminating in AAC, frequently with gangrene. A model of the pathogenesis of AAC is discussed.     

硫化氢/胱硫醚-γ-裂解酶在胆管梗阻致急性胆囊炎中的表达

目的探讨硫化氢/胱硫醚-γ-裂解酶(H2S/CSE)体系在胆管梗阻致急性非结石性胆囊炎(AAC)中的表达。方法健康成年豚鼠30只,胆总管结扎(BDL)方法构建豚鼠AAC模型。随机分为3组,即正常组、假手术对照(Sham)组和胆总管结扎48 h(BDL-48 h)组。HE染色后光镜下观察各组胆囊病理改变;检测胆囊组织中CSE活性;免疫组化SP法观察各组胆囊组织中CSE的表达;免疫印迹法分析各组胆囊CSE的表达水平。结果正常组和Sham组未见明显炎症反应,与正常组、Sham组相比,BDL-48 h组胆囊组织病理学评分差异有统计学意义(P0.05)。各组胆囊组织中CSE呈阳性表达,而BDL-48 h组的CSE活性、CSE蛋白表达均较正常组和Sham组显著增高(P0.05)。结论胆囊组织存在CSE,H2S/CSE体系可能参与了AAC的病理过程。     

Cholangiographic appearance of multiseptate gallbladder: Case report and a review of the literature

A case of multiseptate gallbladder is described, with a review of the literature. This is the 24th such case report. The patient complained of right upper quadrant pain, colicky in nature. Abdominal ultrasonography showed multiple fine echoes within the gallbladder. On endoscopic retrograde cholangiography, multiple radiolucent lines crossing the gallbladder in various directions were noted within the gallbladder. The gallbladder was crisscrossed by numerous delicate septations and had a honeycomb appearance. These findings suggested multiseptate gallbladder.     

高年老人急性非结石性胆囊炎的临床特点和治疗

目的 探讨高龄老年人急性非结石性胆囊炎（AAC）的临床特点与治疗。方法对21例病例进行临床资料分析。结果本文报道了21例73～95岁,平均年龄79．7岁的高龄老人急性非结石性胆囊炎。均并存有不同程度的系统性疾病,心血管病：高血压、冠心病、心律失常（71．4％）;呼吸系：老慢支、肺气肿（42．86％）,其中4例长期应用呼吸器;3例脑血管意外后遗症（14．28％）,5例长期鼻饲管饮食者（23,8％）。两个系统同时有病者10例（47．6％）。12例行早期胆囊切除术．3例作胆囊造瘘术,其中1例胆囊坏死、穿孔（5％）,6例采用非手术内科治疗,均获得痊愈。21例病人无1例死亡。结论争取在48小时内进行早期胆囊切除术是防止胆囊穿孔、降低并发症和死亡率的重要治疗措施。B型超声波检查对早期诊断AAC具有重要意义。     

IgG4-Associated Cholecystitis: Another Clue in the Diagnosis of Autoimmune Pancreatitis

Purpose  

Autoimmune pancreatitis (AIP) is the pancreatic manifestation of IgG4-associated systemic disease (ISD). Criteria for diagnosis of AIP include recognition of extra-pancreatic organ involvement. Because the diagnosis of AIP can be challenging, even for experts, it is important for clinicians to recognize other target organ damage in this disease. Typical gallbladder findings in AIP have been increasingly recognized. Because cholecystectomy is common in the community, the availability of previous tissue from the gallbladder can provide an important supportive clue in the diagnosis of AIP. The objective of this review is to examine the literature on common gallbladder pathology findings in AIP, and discuss their clinical utility.     

Heterotopic gastric mucosa of the gallbladder

A case of heterotopic gastric mucosa in the fundus of the gallbladder is reported. A 23-year-old man, who had been healthy and asymptomatic, visited our hospital because of abnormal findings in a liver enzyme test given during a routine health screening. Ultrasonography demonstrated a highly echogenic polypoid mass in the fundus of the gallbladder. The gallbladder mass was confirmed by both computed tomography and intravenous cholangiogram. After a 10-month follow up, laparoscopic cholecystectomy was performed. Intraoperative touch smear cytology of this lesion revealed class II cells. The surgical specimen revealed a 15×10×5 mm polypoid lesion in the fundus, with no gallstones in the gallbladder. Histologically, the polypoid lesion consisted of both fundic type and pyloric type gastric glands located in the mucosa of the gallbladder. In the literature, 42 cases of heterotopic gastric mucosa of the gallbladder have been reported, only 3 of which, including this present case, were found incidentally, with no apparent symptoms.     

A case of mucinous cystic neoplasm of the gallbladder

The patient was a 70-year-old woman in whom examination revealed a high level of carbohydrate antigen 19-9. Abdominal ultrasonography and computed tomography (CT) revealed a multilocular cystic lesion compressing the gallbladder. CT indicated the presence of a multilocular cystic tumor (67?×?68?×?72 mm) in contact with the right hepatic lobe. Intraoperative findings indicated that the cyst diameter was 8.5?×?6.0 cm, and the cyst was continuous with the gallbladder. The gallbladder was resected along with the cyst. The cyst was multilocular and originated from the cystic duct and gallbladder wall. The cyst wall contained cuboidal to columnar mucin-producing epithelial cells and ovarian-like stroma (OS). The final diagnosis was mucinous cystic neoplasm (MCN) of the gallbladder with low-grade dysplasia. In the 2010 WHO classification of tumors of the digestive system, MCN have been newly defined as a type of hepatobiliary tract epithelial neoplasms. MCN of the gallbladder with OS is extremely rare. Only three cases have been published in the literature. The presence of OS is necessary for diagnosis of MCN.     

胆道梗阻诱发急性胆囊炎对豚鼠胆囊平滑肌收缩的影响

目的探讨胆道梗阻早期胆囊平滑肌的收缩障碍,并初步探究其相关机制。方法胆总管结扎方法构建豚鼠急性非结石性胆囊炎(AAC)模型,HE染色后光镜下观察各组胆囊病理改变。采用灌流法加药,利用张力换能器记录豚鼠离体胆囊肌条张力的变化,观察8肽胆囊收缩素(CCK-8)、乙酰胆碱(Ach)及氯化钾(KCl)对正常豚鼠离体胆囊肌条(A组)、假手术组(B组)、胆总管结扎1天(C组)、胆总管结扎2天(D组)豚鼠离体胆囊肌条的影响。结果A、B组未见明显炎性改变;C组炎症改变较轻;D组炎性改变明显。加入CCK-8、Ach和KCl后,A组、B组、C组及D组收缩振幅均增加,呈浓度依赖性;C、D两组振幅效应值同A组和B组相比变小,起作用时间慢(P0.05)。结论利用胆总管结扎方法可成功构建AAC模型。离体胆囊肌条肌张力降低在AAC的发生发展中有重要作用。模型组肌条收缩力降低,可能与CCK受体、胆碱能受体相关。     

Clinical features of acute acalculous cholecystitis

BACKGROUND: Acute acalculous cholecystitis (AAC) tends to have a fulminant course and be associated with critically ill diseases, there have been reports of AAC without any risk factors but good prognosis. GOALS: To assess the risk factors, clinical features and prognosis of AAC. STUDY: All patients who had a cholecystectomy due to acute cholecystitis at Pundang Jesaeng General Hospital during a 43-month period were prospectively enrolled. AAC was defined by ultrasonographic, intraoperative and pathologic findings of acute cholecystitis without evidence of gallstones. Clinical features and pathologic findings were analyzed and outcome was assessed. RESULTS: 156 patients with acute cholecystitis were enrolled and 14% (22 of 156) met the criteria of AAC. Fifteen (68%) of the patients with AAC were male and the average age was 63 year old. Twenty patients were presented with AAC as outpatients of whom seven of them (35%) had atherosclerotic vascular disease. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy was performed in 126 patients (80.8%) with acute cholecystitis but was possible in only 12 patients (54.5%) with AAC. AAC was associated with a high incidence of gangrene (59%) but no patients died of acute cholecystitis. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that AAC frequently occurs in elderly male outpatients without critical illness and gangrene is common but the prognosis is better than reported previously.     

Sex hormones, sex hormone binding globulin, and abdominal aortic calcification in women and men in the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis (MESA)

Background

Conflicting findings exist regarding the associations of sex hormones with subclinical atherosclerosis.

Methods

This is a substudy from MESA of 881 postmenopausal women and 978 men who had both abdominal aortic calcification (AAC) quantified by computed tomography and sex hormone levels assessed [Testosterone (T), estradiol (E2), dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), and sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG)]. We examined the association of sex hormones with presence and extent of AAC.

Results

For women, SHBG was inversely associated with both AAC presence [OR = 0.62, 95% CI 0.42-0.91 for 1 unit greater log(SHBG) level] and extent [0.29 lower log(AAC) for 1 unit greater log(SHBG) level, β = −0.29 (95% CI −0.57 to −0.006)] adjusting for age, race, hypertension, smoking, diabetes, BMI, physical activity, and other sex hormones. After further adjustment for total and HDL-cholesterol, SHBG was not associated with ACC presence or extent. In men, there was no association between SHBG and AAC. In both men and women, neither T, E2, nor DHEA was associated with AAC presence or extent.

Conclusion

After adjustment for non-lipid cardiovascular risk factors, SHBG levels are inversely associated with both the presence and severity of AAC in women but not in men, which may be accounted for by HDL.     

Carcinoma in a True Diverticulum of the Gallbladder

Extensive search of the literature reveals the extreme rarity of true diverticulum of the gallbladder. Its frequency varies from 0.0008% of all resected gallbladders at the Mayo Clinic to 0.06% of a series of congenital anomalies of the gallbladder collected from the world literature. We are presenting a case of a true diverticulum of the gallbladder with sonographic demonstration and focal malignant alterations, neither one of which has been reported previously. The difference between true and false diverticula of the gallbladder is discussed.