Natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery (NOTES) for innovation in hepatobiliary and pancreatic surgery: preface

Introduction  Natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery (NOTES) has captured the interest of interventional endoscopists and may represent the next stage of evolution of minimally invasive surgery. It provides the potential for performance of incisionless operations. It is gaining momentum both in the animal laboratory and in human case reports. Developments in the field of NOTES have led to the formation of the Natural Orifice Surgery Consortium for Assessment and Research (NOSCAR) in 2006. Materials and methods  In this special issue, the current trends in NOTES in the field of hepatobiliary and pancreatic surgery are featured, including NOTES cholecystectomy, hepatectomy splenectomy, pancreatic necrosectomy, and the future of NOTES. In this issue, we discuss the potential benefits of these procedures in hepatobiliary and pancreatic surgery. Conclusion  We have just started the evaluation process for this new technology. The concept of NOTES is becoming established and is enormously advantageous for the patient. Both the surgeon and gastroenterologist should contribute to developing NOTES in making use of their specialties.     

Natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery (NOTES) renal cryoablation in a porcine model

OBJECTIVE

To present our laboratory experience with natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery (NOTES) renal cryoablation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In two female farm pigs, we performed four procedures of NOTES renal cryoablation. In each pig, NOTES was performed through a transgastric approach and a transvaginal approach for each kidney, respectively. The pig was placed in the flank position and pneumoperitoneum obtained using a transabdominal Veress needle. In the first pig, we started with the left kidney with a transgastric approach: a dual‐channel video gastroscope (Olympus, Tokyo, Japan) was used, the stomach wall was punctured using a needle‐knife, a guidewire was passed into the abdominal cavity and the access dilated using a controlled radial expansion balloon. The bowel was mobilized medially and the Gerota’s fascia overlying the upper pole was dissected. Under direct endoscopic vision, a cryoablation probe was introduced percutaneously into the anterior upper pole of the kidney. The pig was then flipped to the right flank position and a transvaginal approach was used: the gastroscope was introduced through the posterior fornix of the vagina. For the second pig, we performed initially a transgastric right‐side cryoablation then a transvaginal left‐side cryoablation as described for the first pig.

RESULTS

All four procedures were performed successfully, with no intraoperative complications. No additional laparoscopic ports or open conversions were necessary. The vision of the kidney and the ice‐ball was adequate for all cases. The mean operative duration was 83 min. Stomach closure was tested watertight, and there were no abdominal or pelvic injuries found at autopsy.

CONCLUSIONS

NOTES can provide adequate minimal surgical dissection for safe and effective percutaneous renal cryoablation under direct videoscopic monitoring at kidney locations otherwise not accessible percutaneously. Both transgastric and transvaginal approaches can be used effectively for renal cryoablation providing a minimally invasive scar‐less surgery.     

Adrenalectomy using natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery (NOTES): A transvaginal retroperitoneal approach

Background  Endoscopic adrenalectomy currently is performed using either a retroperitoneal or transperitoneal approach. The retroperitoneal approach is ideal for patients with small lesions who have undergone previous intraabdominal surgery. This study aimed to explore transvaginal retroperitoneal right and left adrenalectomies in porcine and cadaver models. Methods  Right and left adrenalectomies were performed for two female pigs. With the pig supine under general anaesthesia, the retroperitoneal space was entered with a double-channel endoscope (Storz) through a posterior colpotomy. A retroperitoneal tunnel was fashioned using blunt dissection with the assistance of low carbon dioxide insufflation up to the inferior pole of the kidney. Dissection of the upper renal pole allowed access to the adrenal gland. Using blunt dissection, a plane was created between the aorta on the left and the adrenal gland and inferior vena cava on the right. The left main middle vascular pedicle was identified and taken between clips, whereas an endoloop was used on the right side. The specimen was retrieved intact with a polypectomy snare. The same access then was reproduced with two female cadavers. Results  Transvaginal retroperitoneal adrenalectomies were successfully accomplished with a transvaginal approach using natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery (NOTES). The operative time was 70 min, and there was no injury to the retroperitoneal structures. The access was effectively reproduced in the cadaver model, with prompt identification of the retroperitoneal anatomic landmarks. Conclusion  Transvaginal retroperitoneal NOTES adrenalectomy is feasible in the porcine model. It reaches the adrenal proper anatomic plane with no need for dissection or retraction of the surrounding organs. This technique might be especially valuable for patients with multiple previous abdominal operations and obese patients in that allows direct access to the adrenal gland and minimizes the cardiovascular and pulmonary risk related to carbon dioxide pneumoperitoneum. Although the operation was successfully validated with cadavers, further experiments and better tools are needed before NOTES transvaginal retroperitoneal access is considered for humans. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Reliable gastric closure after natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery (NOTES) using a novel automated flexible stapling device

Background  Reliable closure of the translumenal incision is one of the main challenges facing natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery (NOTES). This study aimed to evaluate the use of an automated flexible stapling device (SurgASSIST) for closure of the gastrotomy incision in a porcine model. Methods  A double-channel gastroscope was advanced into the stomach. A gastric wall incision was made, and the endoscope was advanced into the peritoneal cavity. After peritoneoscopy, the endoscope was withdrawn into the stomach. The SurgASSIST stapler was advanced orally into the stomach. The gastrotomy edges were positioned between the opened stapler arms using two endoscopic grasping forceps. Stapler loads with and without a cutting blade were used for gastric closure. After firing of the stapler to close the gastric wall incision, x-ray with contrast was performed to assess for gastric leakage. At the end of the procedure, the animals were killed for a study of closure adequacy. Results  Four acute animal experiments were performed. The delivery and positioning of the stapler were achieved, with technical difficulties mostly due to a short working length (60 cm) of the device. Firing of the staple delivered four rows of staples. Postmortem examination of pig 1 (when a cutting blade was used) demonstrated full-thickness closure of the gastric wall incision, but the cutting blade caused a transmural hole right at the end of the staple line. For this reason, we stopped using stapler loads with a cutting blade. In the three remaining animals (pigs 2–4), we were able to achieve a full-thickness closure of the gastric wall incision without any complications. Conclusions  The flexible stapling device may provide a simple and reliable technique for lumenal closure after NOTES procedures. Further survival studies are currently under way to evaluate the long-term efficacy of gastric closure with the stapler after intraperitoneal interventions. Presented in part at the Society of American Gastrointestinal Endoscopic Surgeons (SAGES) Annual Meeting, Las Vegas, Nevada, April 2007.     

Dual-lumen natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery (NOTES): a new method for performing a safe anastomosis

Background Bowel anastomosis is one of the most challenging and difficult tasks to perform during natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery (NOTES). The difficulty is mainly due to the technical limitations of the endoscopic instruments available. Currently, endoscopic clips, T-bar sutures, or cumbersome suturing devices are used. A dual-lumen NOTES approach can facilitate bowel resection in a pig model by allowing the use of laparoscopic staplers through the rectum. Methods Acute studies were performed on four 40-kg pig models. The dual-lumen NOTES approach was used to perform small bowel resection and anastomosis. An endoscope was passed into the stomach and pushed through the stomach wall into the peritoneal cavity (first lumen), and a 12-mm trocar was placed through the anterior rectal wall, allowing access to the peritoneum (second lumen). Handling of the bowel, resection, and anastomosis were performed using endoscopic instruments through the gastric lumen and laparoscopic instruments through the rectal lumen. The resected small bowel then was removed through the rectum. Results Small bowel resection and anastomosis was successfully completed in all four animals using the dual-lumen NOTES approach. The laparoscopic stapler was used one more time to close the gastrotomy through the rectal port. At autopsy, intact suture lines were noted at the bowel anastomosis and at the stomach, with no evidence of leak from either site. Conclusions Performing a sutured anastomosis in NOTES is complex and time consuming. The use of stapling devices designed for laparoscopic procedures greatly facilitates gastrointestinal tract operations in NOTES. Using both the upper and lower gastrointestinal tract as entry sites for NOTES eliminates some of the current technical limitations of these procedures. Presented at the 2007 society of American Gastrointestinal Endoscopic Surgeons (SAGES) Meeting.     

Natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery (NOTES) in urology: initial experience

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: For years, urologists have been champions of surgery performed through natural body openings. The next frontier is intraperitoneal or retroperitoneal surgery performed via natural body openings. We reviewed the initial experience with natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery (NOTES) in urology. METHODS: The first experimental application of NOTES was published in 2002 when transvaginal nephrectomy was performed in the porcine model. Confirmatory experimental studies using the gastrointestinal tract for NOTES were first published in 2004. The bladder was first experimentally evaluated as a portal for NOTES in 2006. Urologists have developed and evaluated novel magnetic anchoring systems and operative platforms for NOTES. To date, clinical application of NOTES in urology is limited to transvesical peritoneoscopy. RESULTS: Analysis of the literature suggests that technologic, anatomic, physiologic, ethical, and philosophical questions must be answered before NOTES will be widely introduced or justified clinically. The premise that NOTES will be associated with a better recovery and fewer postoperative risks also remains to be evaluated. CONCLUSIONS: Largely in experimental models, urologists have show feasibility of NOTES. Ongoing evaluation and the introduction of new technologies are required for the field to advance. In addition, NOTES should be carefully embraced only after detailed evaluations prove a measured benefit in comparison to established minimally invasive techniques.     

Evaluation for transvaginal and transgastric NOTES cholecystectomy in human and animal natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery

Background/purpose  Natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery (NOTES) is a novel concept using an endoscope via a translumenal access for abdominal surgery. This study was designed to evaluate the feasibility and technical aspects of NOTES cholecystectomy from our experience on humans and animals. Methods  NOTES cholecystectomies were performed in 12 animal experiments, including 8 pigs (6 by transgastric and 2 by transvaginal accesses) and 4 dogs (4 transvaginal accesses), and a human female cadaver. Results  The entire gallbladder could be removed under direct vision in all experiments. The average time was 60 min by transgastric and 40 min by transvaginal in animals. It was 87 min for human transvaginal cholecystectomy. In all animal and human procedures, there was no major complication concerning the operation. Discussion  The transvaginal route may be the easiest route for abdominal NOTES. Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) allowed the safe performance of a controlled gastric perforation and shortened the time. The hybrid method allowed performance of a safe procedure and shortened the time. Conclusions  Transvaginal and transgastric NOTES cholecystectomy is technically feasible and safe in both humans and animals. New instrumentation needs to be developed to perform a pure NOTES cholecystectomy without transabdominal assistance.     

Feasibility of radical sigmoid colectomy performed as natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery (NOTES) using transanal endoscopic microsurgery

Background Natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery (NOTES), a recent development in the field of minimally invasive surgery, may offer advantages over open and laparoscopic surgery. Most investigations to date have focused on small end-organ resections, and none have described en bloc regional lymphadenectomy. This study aimed to describe a method of anal transcolonic sigmoid colon resection. Methods A fresh frozen then thawed cadaver model was used. Three male human cadavers were subjected to transanal sigmoid colon mobilization, high vascular ligation, en bloc lymphadenectomy, and stapled end-to-end anastomosis performed by a single operator using transanal endoscopic microsurgery instrumentation. Results The findings showed that NOTES sigmoid colon resection with en bloc lymphadenectomy and primary anastomosis can be performed successfully. The critical steps of the procedure were (1) luminal suture occlusion of the sigmoid colon, (2) transrectal bowel division, (3) entry through the mesorectum into the presacral space, (4) en bloc mobilization of the sigmoid colon mesentery off of the retroperitoneum, (5) high ligation of the superior hemorrhoidal artery, (6) transanal delivery of the intact sigmoid colon specimen, (7) extracorporeal division of the colon, and (8) creation of a stapled end-to-end colorectal anastomosis. Postprocedure laparotomy confirmed adequate lymphadenectomy and anastomosis with no untoward events. Conclusions It is possible to complete the critical steps of a NOTES sigmoid resection, en bloc lymphadenectomy, primary anastomosis, and retrieval of an intact specimen without any incisions using transanal endoscopic microsurgery instrumentation.     

Natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery (NOTES) applied totally to sigmoidectomy: an original technique with survival in a porcine model

Background  Natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery (NOTES) continues to evolve. This study investigated the feasibility and outcome of performing localized sigmoidectomy in its entirety via NOTES. Methods  A survival study of five male minipigs (mean weight, 30 kg) was conducted. After anesthesia, a gastrotomy was created by a per os double-channel endoscope, and full peritoneoscopy was performed. A Berci needle then was inserted transparietally to allow maintenance and monitoring of the pneumoperitoneum. Using a transanal probe to facilitate intestinal retraction, the mesentery was dissected with instruments worked through the channels of the transgastric endoscope. The anvil of a circular stapler then was passed per anum into the colon above the point of intended transection. A penetrating transrectal trocar was placed to allow entry of a linear stapler into the peritoneum through a colotomy, and the sigmoid was cross-stapled proximally. The strut of the anvil then was snugged into a colotomy made at this staple line. The specimen was delivered via the anus by a “pull-through” technique. The distal sigmoidal margin was cross-stapled extracorporeally, ensuring that the colotomy was included within the specimen. Retrograde passage of the circular stapler head per anus allowed colocolonic reanastomosis by its mating with the anvil already in situ. The gastrotomy was closed with a previously validated prosthesis. Postoperatively, all the animals were recovered and monitored for well-being during convalescence. Endoscopy (gastroscopy and sigmoidoscopy), laparoscopy, and laparotomy were performed on postoperative day 14 as follow-up measures. Results  Each operation was satisfactorily completed. The mean operative time was 76 min (range, 44–95 min). All the animals prospered postoperatively. Follow-up examination showed full healing of all anastomoses and gastrotomy sites. There was no evidence of luminal stricturing, peritonitis, or intraabdominal sepsis in any animal. Conclusions  Using this experimental model, colonic resection and reanastomosis can be performed safely within the NOTES format. Presented at S032 NOTES Sigmoid Resection at SAGES, April 9–12, 2008.     

Natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery (NOTES): safe implementation through technological innovation

BACKGROUND: NOTES is advancing at a rapid pace with large registries of human applications and increasing evidence to support safety and efficacy. We have however arrived at a stage in the development of the technique where many conceptual applications are not supported by available technology to ensure safe implementation. METHODS: The data presented in this editorial are based on the views of the authors and reviews of the literature which have been conducted using PubMed, a search tool of the National Library of Medicine and the national institute of Health, including the MEDLINE database and the Cochrane library until the 1st of February 2011. RESULTS: This editorial reviews the technological challenges that must be overcome and novel solutions are discussed. CONCLUSIONS: For NOTES to realise its full potential, surgeons have to wait for technology to catch up with ideological innovation before embarking on more complex procedures than the hybrid transvaginal feasibility studies currently taking place.     

Natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery (NOTES) partial nephrectomy in a porcine model

Background  

This study aimed to evaluate the feasibility of natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery (NOTES) transgastric partial nephrectomy without hilar clamping in a porcine model.     

经自然腔道手术的操作平台、入路和切口闭合的研究进展

经自然腔道内镜手术是一种新型的微创手术,其发展尚面临诸多技术问题。笔者就该手术的操作平台、手术入路和切口闭合等关键问题的研究进展进行综述。     

Current status and prerequisites for natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery (NOTES)

Natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery (NOTES) is a sophisticated form of endoscopic surgery whose use has recently spread rapidly around the world. Although hundreds of reports of animal studies and clinical cases about NOTES have been published since 2004, NOTES is still in the experimental phase. The formation of an iatrogenic incision in the lumenal wall of intraperitoneal organs is a major disadvantage of NOTES. No reliable technique for complete closure has yet been established, and this problem must be resolved before NOTES can be adopted as a routine clinical practice. Several devices for the closure of lumenal incisions in the stomach or colorectum have been developed, and their safety and usefulness have been examined in animal studies and clinical cases. Kyushu University has been involved in furthering the adoption of NOTES as a routine clinical practice, and the Kyushu University Training Center for Minimally Invasive Surgery holds training sessions on endoscopic surgical techniques for surgeons from all over Japan. Studies to develop a navigation system and robotic technology for use with NOTES are also in progress at Kyushu University. The further development of endoscopy-related technologies and equipment, such as robotic technology, is therefore essential to allow the safe, widespread adoption of pure NOTES.     

Natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery: critical appraisal of applications in clinical practice

Background  Natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery (NOTES), with its focus on eliminating incision-related complications, promises to revolutionize the way surgery is performed. This study aimed to summarize the clinical applications of NOTES for humans, outline the techniques used, and discuss the complications and limitations of current techniques. Methods  A literature search was performed using PubMed and Medline search tools to review the extent and outcomes of human procedures undertaken using the NOTES technique in its pure form or as a hybrid procedure reported until July 2008. The end points were the types of operation performed, the approach and technique used for each operation, and the procedure-related complications and technical limitations. Results  This review considered 16 publications reporting on 49 human subjects. All the studies except three used hybrid NOTES procedures, with varying amounts of transabdominal assistance. Three transvaginal cholecystectomies, one transvaginal appendectomy, and eight transgastric appendectomies have been performed using a pure NOTES technique. To date, 15 NOTES transvaginal cholecystectomies and 10 NOTES appendectomies (8 transgastric and 2 transvaginal) are reported. Other procedures including peritoneoscopy and sigmoid colectomy are described. Three cases of minor morbidity are reported and no mortality. Conclusions  Although initial human results seem encouraging, it is important that this research be conducted in a way that minimizes bad publicity and describes both favorable and adverse outcomes. Robust trials must be conducted at established centers with appropriate experience and institutional board ethical review to allow safe introduction of this novel technique, with adequate and expedient reporting of serious adverse events. The limitations of the current tools and methods are discussed, and suggestions are made for further improvements in the technology to facilitate NOTES operations.     

Hybrid natural orifice translumenal surgery (NOTES) sleeve gastrectomy: a feasibility study using an animal model

Background  The indications for natural orifice translumenal surgery (NOTES) are yet to be determined. Morbidly obese patients may be one population that would benefit from this approach due to the elimination of wound complications and possibly a faster recovery. As a bariatric restrictive procedure, sleeve gastrectomy could be one indication for NOTES. To test the feasibility of this procedure with a NOTES approach, a pig model was used. Methods  Acute studies investigated five 40-kg farm pigs. The rectum was used as the port of entry to the peritoneal cavity, and the stomach was manipulated endoluminally using a gastroscope. Vision was acquired through a 5-mm laparoscope introduced transabdominally (i.e. via the hybrid technique). A 10-mm incision was made on the anterior wall of the rectum and dilated to accommodate a 12-mm trocar introduced through the rectal wall into the peritoneal cavity. The greater curvature of the stomach then was divided and detached, starting from the antrum and proceeding to the esophagogastric junction using a laparoscopic stapler. The sleeve gastrectomy was completed by dividing the short gastric vessels with an ultrasonic scalpel. The gastric pouch then was removed through the rectal incision. Results  A NOTES gastric sleeve resection was successfully performed in all five pigs. The technique was developed, and feasibility was determined. After resection, the gastric remnant was inflated, with no evidence of leakage. At autopsy, intact suture lines were noted. Closure of the rectal incision was not attempted. Conclusion  A NOTES sleeve gastrectomy is feasible in porcine animal models. The rectal port of entry allows rigid laparoscopic instruments to be introduced into the peritoneal cavity and enables performance of gastrointestinal procedures the same as in standard laparoscopic surgery. Extra-long instruments are necessary for dissection and division of the stomach at the esophagogastric junction and for accessing the short gastric vessels.     

Natural orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery (NOTES) as a diagnostic tool in the intensive care unit

Background Autopsy studies confirm that many intensive care unit (ICU) patients die from unrecognized sources of abdominal sepsis or ischemia. Computed tomography (CT) scans can be of limited use for these diagnoses and difficult to obtain in critically ill patients who require significant support for transport. Bedside laparoscopy has been described but still is cumbersome to perform. Bedside flexible endoscopy as a diagnostic tool or for placement of gastrostomy tubes is a standard ICU procedure. Natural orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery (NOTES) can provide access to the peritoneal cavity as a bedside procedure and may decrease the number of patients with unrecognized intra-abdominal catastrophic events. Methods Pigs were anesthetized and peritoneal access with the flexible endoscope was obtained using a guidewire, needle knife cautery, and balloon dilatation. The transgastric endoscope was used to explore all quadrants of the abdominal cavity. The small bowel was visualized to complete the exploration. The transgastric access location was then managed with the use of a gastrostomy tube. The animals were euthanized and analyzed. Results Eight pigs were studied and complete abdominal exploration, including diaphragm visualization, was possible in all cases. Endoscopy-guided biopsies were performed, adhesions lysed, and the gallbladder successfully drained percutaneously. The small bowel was run successfully with percutaneous needlescopic suture graspers. Conclusions These animal studies support the concept that NOTES, with management of the gastric opening with a gastrostomy tube, may be another approach for finding unrecognized sources of abdominal sepsis or mesenteric ischemia in difficult ICU patients. These encouraging results warrant a prospective human trial to assess safety and efficacy. Presented at the Scientific Session of the Meeting of the Society of American Gastrointestinal and Endoscopic Surgeons (SAGES), Dallas, TX, 26–29 April 2006 Disclosure: Case Western Reserve University, University Hospitals of Cleveland, Raymond P. Onders M.D., and Anthony Ignagni have the intellectual property of the devices used or equity in Synapse Biomedical which manufactured the diaphragm pacing technology used in this study     

Challenges and lessons learned from NOTES cholecystectomy initial experience: a stepwise approach from the laboratory to clinical application

Background/Purpose  The initial idea behind natural orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery (NOTES) was that of an incisionless surgery. NOTES cholecystectomy is a good model of human ingenuity and technological advance. NOTES cholecystectomy in a human being was performed at our institution after extensive laboratory work in live pig models. In this process we gained helpful information related to NOTES cholecystectomy. Methods  More than 250 cholecystectomies in pigs have been performed. From May 2007 to November 2008 a total of 10 and 6 transvaginal and transgastric human cholecystectomies, respectively, have been performed. Results  The procedure was successful in all patients, with a mean operative time of 120 min. There were no intraoperative or postoperative complications. Patients recovered promptly after surgery and had minor postoperative pain. They were discharged on the second postoperative day. Conclusions  The advantages of laparoscopy appeared to be enhanced by this approach: patients had minor postoperative pain and minimal scarring. This stepwise experience in the cholecystectomy procedure is an important first step in the development of methods and devices to enable the evaluation of potential incisionless NOTES surgery. Additional research and comparison studies are needed for further improvement in order to provide NOTES procedures to a wider range of patients.     

Natural orifice translumenal endoscopic surgery (NOTES) navigation performance: a pilot study comparing surgeons and gastroenterologists

BACKGROUND: As an emerging surgical paradigm, NOTES is currently performed using conventional flexible endoscopes. Gastroenterologists are experts in handling this instrument; however, NOTES involves manipulation of the endoscope outside the lumen of the gastrointestinal tract. Surgeons are used to operating within the spatial environment of the peritoneal cavity. The aim of this study was to investigate whether either surgeons or gastroenterologists are superior at navigating the endoscope in a NOTES environment using the Imperial College Natural Orifice Simulated surgical Environment (NOSsE) as an assessment tool. METHODS: Nine novices, 5 gastroenterologists and 4 laparoscopic surgeons were recruited to navigate through a series of targets in the NOSsE phantom. End-points were time taken to complete the course and number of targets successfully visualised. RESULTS: Gastroenterologists and surgeons completed the course faster (p < 0.001) and revealed more targets than novices (p < 0.001). Overall, surgeons completed the course in less time than gastroenterologists (mean time 228 sec vs. 134 sec; p = 0.172) and visualised more targets (mean 8.83 vs. 7.53; p = 0.217) although neither reached statistical significance. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this pilot study suggest that surgeons are not disadvantaged when it comes to navigating an endoscope within a simulated NOTES environment compared to gastroenterologists. Therefore, as appears to be the current practice, it is acceptable for surgical teams to perform initial NOTES studies, provided they possess adequate skill, appropriate laboratory experience and ethical review board approval. With the evolution in surgical tools, we are likely to see improved instrumentation to aid in navigation in NOTES.