COPD and PE: A clinical dilemma

Dyspnea in patients with known chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) can be a clinical challenge due to the nonspecific nature of atypical presentations. Typical features of fever, productive cough, and wheezing on presentation support COPD exacerbation, while absence of such findings may warrant further evaluation for underlying etiologies, including pulmonary embolism (PE). It is suspected that one in four patients with atypical COPD exacerbation may have PE as an underlying or concomitant cause of acute dyspnea. This review discusses the clinical presentation of COPD and PE, and presents an overview of the rationale for pursuing work-up for thromboembolic disease in the setting of known obstructive lung diseases.     

Rheolytic thrombectomy in patients with massive and submassive acute pulmonary embolism

Objectives : To appraise the impact of AngioJet rheolytic thrombectomy (RT) on angiographic and clinical endpoints in patients with acute pulmonary embolism (PE). Background : The management of patients with acute PE and hemodynamic compromise, based mainly on anticoagulant and thrombolytic therapies, is challenging and still suboptimal in many patients. In such a setting, mechanical removal of thrombus from pulmonary circulation holds the promise of significant clinical benefits, albeit remains under debate. Methods : We retrospectively report on 51 patients referred to our catheterization laboratory and treated with AngioJet RT. Patients were classified according to the degree of hemodynamic compromise (shock, hypotension, and right ventricular dysfunction) to explore thoroughly the degree of angiographic pulmonary involvement (angiographic massive PE was defined as the presence of a Miller index ≥ 17) and the impact on angiographic (obstruction, perfusion, and Miller indexes) and clinical (all‐cause death, recurrence of PE, bleeding, renal failure, and severe thrombocytopenia) endpoints of AngioJet RT. Results : Angiographic massive PE was present in all patients with shock, whereas patients with right ventricular dysfunction and hypotension showed a similar substantial pulmonary vascular bed involvement. Technical success was obtained in 92.2% of patients, with a significant improvement in obstruction, perfusion and Miller indexes in each subgroup (all P < 0.0001). Four patients reported major bleedings and eight (15.7%) died in‐hospital. Laboratory experience was significantly associated to a lower rate of major bleedings. All survivors were alive at long‐term follow‐up (35.5 ± 21.7 months) except three who expired due to cancer and acute myocardial infarction. Conclusions : In experienced hands AngioJet RT can be operated safely and effectively in most patients with acute PE, either massive or submassive, and substantial involvement of pulmonary vascular bed. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Value of structured clinical and scintigraphic protocols in acute pulmonary embolism

PURPOSE: To study the use of a combination of a clinical and scintigraphic protocol in relation to the final outcome diagnosis in patients with clinical suspicion of acute pulmonary embolism (PE). MATERIAL AND METHODS: A total of 170 patients with clinical suspicion of acute PE were all examined with ECG, blood chemistry, chest X-ray, pulmonary scintigraphy and selective pulmonary arteriography. The scintigraphic and clinical probabilities of PE were estimated on visual analogue scales (VASs) by different readers unaware of each others' results. The follow-up time was 6 months. In order to establish the final diagnosis a final outcome committee was created. They analysed in retrospect all the clinical and laboratory data and established whether the patient had had PE or not. RESULTS: The final outcome committee concluded that 53 patients had PE. When the scintigraphic and clinical probability judgements were congruent, a combined probability of 1-25% (i.e low probability) had a negative predictive value of 98%. When the combined probability was 26-75% (i.e. intermediate) half of the cases had PE. With a combined probability of 76-100% (i.e. high) the positive predictive value was 100%. CONCLUSION: By applying a model of combined clinical and scintigraphic probabilities for PE, the diagnosis is ruled in when the combined probability is high, and ruled out when the combined probability is low. However, nearly half of the patients will still have an uncertain diagnosis for which further diagnostic procedures may be allocated.     

Anticoagulant treatment of pulmonary embolism: impact and implications of the EINSTEIN PE study

Pulmonary embolism (PE), which can develop as a consequence of deep vein thrombosis (DVT), is a serious and potentially fatal venous thromboembolic event. Patients with PE are at increased risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE) recurrence and serious complications such as chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Anticoagulants, namely heparins and vitamin K antagonists (VKAs), have been the main treatments for PE in patients who are haemodynamically stable. However, use of these agents can be complex and is associated with an increased risk of bleeding (a characteristic that is common to all anticoagulants). Simplified, effective treatment regimens for PE would be very beneficial for patients, physicians and payers. Compared with DVT, PE is a different clinical manifestation of VTE; phase III trials have now started to focus specifically on patients with PE. Trials in patients with PE can provide further information on the optimal management of these patients. Results of the phase III EINSTEIN PE study demonstrated non-inferiority in the efficacy and safety of oral rivaroxaban compared with standard of care (enoxaparin/VKA) for the treatment of patients with acute symptomatic PE (with or without symptomatic DVT). Rates of major bleeding were significantly lower in patients receiving rivaroxaban. This review will discuss the findings of recent trials, particularly the potential impact of single, oral agents for both the initial and long-term treatment of a range of patients with PE, and how these results may influence the clinical management of PE.     

320层CT单容积肺动脉成像诊断老年肺动脉血栓栓塞的临床应用

目的探讨320层CT单容积肺动脉成像诊断肺动脉血栓栓塞(肺栓塞)的临床应用价值。方法应用320层CT单容积扫描模式对75例年龄60岁临床怀疑肺栓塞患者行肺动脉CT成像,采用容积再现技术、多平面重建及曲面重建等方法分析扫描数据。结果本组75例患者均成功完成扫描,图像质量均可满足诊断,41例诊断为肺栓塞,其中段级肺栓塞12例,余34例除外肺栓塞。全部病例最终诊断均经核素肺通气灌注扫描及临床溶栓治疗有效所证实。应用320层CT单容积肺动脉成像扫描时间1 s,平均射线剂量为(2.73±0.47)mSv,造影剂总量45 ml。结论 320层CT单容积肺动脉成像诊断肺栓塞是一种有效的无创检查手段,其具有低射线损伤、低对比剂用量、成像速度快等优势,尤其适用于临床急重症及老年患者。     

Should Transesophageal Echocardiography Become a Routine Test in Patients with Suspected Pulmonary Thromboembolism?

Pulmonary thromboembolism presents in two clinical subsets: acute pulmonary embolism (PE) with or without right heart thrombi or paradoxical embolism and chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (CTEPH). Both PE and CTEPH have been underdiagnosed and carry high mortality rates. Acute massive PE is a hemodynamic entity leading to right ventricular overload readily identified with the use of transthoracic echocardiography. Transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) is a noninvasive bedside technique that has high diagnostic accuracy for the detection of central pulmonary thromboembolism. Due to the high prevalence of central pulmonary thromboembolism in acute PE, TEE is a useful method to provide the necessary proof for the institution of thrombolytic therapy. In the subset of patients with acute PE combined with right heart thrombi or paradoxical embolism, TEE is the technique of choice to guide surgery. CTEPH presents as primary pulmonary hypertension, but it has become a surgically curable disease. TEE is a fast, fairly sensitive, and highly specific diagnostic bedside modality to select surgical candidates with CTEPH. TEE should become a routine test in patients with suspected massive acute PE, suspected right heart thrombi, or paradoxical embolism associated with acute pulmonary embolism and in patients with primary pulmonary hypertension to select those having CTEPH who are suitable for surgery.     

Clinical outcome of patients with suspected pulmonary embolism. A follow-up study of 588 consecutive patients

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the clinical outcome in patients with clinically suspected pulmonary embolism (PE). Design and setting. In a retrospective design we studied 588 consecutive patients with suspected PE and referred for lung scintigraphy from 1995 to 1998. The mean follow-up time was 653 +/- 424 days. RESULTS: The diagnosis of PE was confirmed in 194 and excluded in 394 patients, respectively. The overall prevalence of PE was 33%. Amongst clinical and paraclinical variables, age, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), heart rate, pleuritic pain, presence of deep venous thrombosis (DVT), electrocardiographic signs of right ventricular (RV) strain were identified as independent predictors of the diagnosis of PE. Amongst patients with PE anticoagulation was given in 96% for at least 3 months and 13% received thrombolytic therapy. Recurrent PE was seen in 6% of patients with PE whereas none of the patients with no diagnosis of PE suffered PE during follow-up. The 1 year mortality was 18% amongst patients with PE and 15% in patients with excluded PE (P=NS). The cause of death amongst patients with PE was cancer (49%) and PE (28%), whereas patients without PE had an excess mortality because of cancer, COPD, acute myocardial infarction and heart failure. CONCLUSION: Patients admitted to hospital on suspicion of PE have increased risk of adverse clinical outcome whether the diagnosis of PE is confirmed or not. This indicates that the patients where the diagnosis is excluded often suffer from other serious illness that warrants further investigations.     

Diagnostic yield of CT pulmonary angiography for pulmonary embolism in clinically suspected patients

Pulmonary embolism (PE) is a common medical problem. Its diagnostic criteria must be reviewed to determine the need for confirmatory testing. Computed tomography pulmonary angiography (CTPA) is the current standard of care, which provides accurate diagnosis with rapid turnaround. This study aimed to estimate the diagnostic yield of CTPA in clinically suspected PE patients in a tertiary care hospital in Saudi Arabia.Radiology records of all patients with clinically suspected PE who underwent CTPA between January 1, 2012 and September 30, 2018 were reviewed retrospectively. A radiologist with 10 years of professional experience interpreted and reported all cases. The Wells score with 2 tiers (likely and unlikely) was used to raise the clinical suspicion of PE.Positive results for PE were reported in 177 out of 534 clinically suspected cases (33%). Among the positive PE cases, 143 were acute (81%) and 34 (19%) were chronic. Bilateral, right-sided, and left-sided PE were found in 115 (65%), 37 (21%), and 25 (14%) cases, respectively. Involvement of the segmental branches, subsegmental branches, and the pulmonary trunk were noted in 152 (86%), 70 (40%), and 9 cases (5%), respectively. Saddle PE was found in (4%) of the cases. The lower lobe branches (right 55%, left 53%) and the upper lobe branches (right 47%, left 41%) were the most common sites of involvement.CTPA had a higher positive detection rate for PE among clinically suspected cases than its published diagnostic yield. Adequate clinical evaluation when selecting patients for CTPA is emphasized to minimize unjustified exposure of the patients to radiation and intravenous contrast administration. It is crucial for radiologists to provide detailed reports commenting on all relevant findings, including pertinent negatives. A template for reporting radiological findings for CTPA can be recommended for this purpose.     

Pulmonary embolism: a follow-up study of the relation between the degree of right ventricle overload and the extent of perfusion defects

OBJECTIVES: To describe the course of changes in perfusion lung scintigraphy (LS) after acute pulmonary embolism (PE) and test the hypothesis that patients with persistent pulmonary hypertension (PH)/right ventricle (RV) dysfunction after acute PE can be differentiated from those without through larger perfusion defects (PDf) on LS. Design. Prospective, one-year follow-up study with repeated LS and echocardiography-Doppler investigations. SETTING: Single centre, University Hospital. SUBJECTS: Patients with clinical suspicion of acute PE with a diagnosis confirmed by LS and/or pulmonary angiography and able to undergo repeated investigations. Of the 78 patients included, a six-week follow-up was completed in 67 and a one-year follow-up in 64. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Time course of PDf in relation to time course of pulmonary artery systolic pressure (PAsP) and RV function. RESULTS: Initially, PDf decreased exponentially, until the beginning of a stable phase, which was achieved within 54 days for 90% of the patients and within 148 days for all. The temporal relation for the regress of PDf and decrease in PAsP was loose. Patients with persistent PDf suffered PH/RV dysfunction more often than those without. However, the variability in the degree of haemodynamic changes for a given extent of PDf was large. CONCLUSIONS: After acute PE, LS is of use for the identification of the group of patients that may have persistent PH/RV dysfunction. However. since the identification of individual patients is uncertain, LS cannot replace echocardiography-Doppler in the identification of persistent PH/RV dysfunction after acute PE.     

Liver dysfunction in patients with acute pulmonary embolism

Aim: Although liver injury due to cardiac, chronic respiratory and circulatory failure has been reported, this has yet to be studied in patients with pulmonary embolism (PE). We investigated liver injury in patients with acute PE. Methods: We retrospectively reviewed 107 acute PE patients over a two‐year period. Patients were categorized as having: (1) severe (P_aO₂ < 45 mmHg), moderate (45 mmHg ≤ P_aO₂≤ 60 mmHg) or mild hypoxemia (60 mmHg < P_aO₂ < 80 mmHg) groups; (2) massive and non‐massive PE; (3) absence or presence of pre‐existing cardiopulmonary disease; and (4) absence or presence of right ventricle dysfunction. Serum levels of liver enzymes were compared between groups. Results: Transaminase levels were higher in severe hypoxemia patients compared mild hypoxemia patients (p=0.045 and p=0.036). Albumin and bilirubin levels were lower and higher, respectively, in patients with severe and moderate hypoxemia compared to mild hypoxemia patients (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01). There was a negative correlation between hepatic markers and P_aO₂ and %S_aO₂: r=–0.212, p=0.032 between AST and %S_aO₂; r=–0.243, p=0.013 and r=–0.241, p=0.014 between ALT and P_aO₂ and %S_aO₂; and r=–0.224, p=0.024 and r= –0.283, p=0.004 between direct bilirubin and P_aO₂ and %S_aO₂. AST and ALT levels were higher in massive PE than non‐massive PE patients (p=0.0001). Albumin levels were lower in patients with right ventricle dysfunction than in those without (p=0.02). One (0.9%) had a clinical picture of hypoxic hepatitis. Conclusion: Abnormal LFTs showed a mixed pattern in patients with acute PE.     

Acute pulmonary embolism after pneumonectomy

Pulmonary embolism (PE) by occlusion of the pulmonary arterial bed may lead to acute life-threatening but potentially reversible right ventricular failure, one of the most severe complications of thoracic surgery. Still, the incidence of acute pulmonary embolism after surgery is reduced by comprehensive anticoagulant prevention, improved surgical techniques, appropriate perioperative management and early ambulation. However, there is difficulty in diagnosing PE after thoracic surgery due to the lack of specific clinical manifestations. So that optimal diagnostic strategy and management according to the clinical presentation and estimated risk of an adverse outcome is fundamental.     

老年肺栓塞的临床特征及其漏、误诊原因分析

目的探讨老年肺栓塞临床误、漏诊的原因及其预防措施。方法研究25例经CTA或MRA证实的肺栓塞，平均年龄为67．5岁，比较临床表现、放射学表现、病史及其合并的疾病。结果25例中呼吸困难（18例），晕厥（10例）、咯血（7例）、胸痛（6例）。有11例误诊，其中误诊为肺炎3例，肺不张2例，心肌梗死2例，急性左心衰1例，3例为漏诊。误诊原因临床表现和放射学表现的复杂多样；医生诊断水平不高、认识不足造成漏诊。控制相关危险因素是预防老年肺栓塞的有效方法。结论老年肺栓塞误诊原因主要是老年患者心肺合并疾病的症状掩盖了肺栓塞症状，对有手术、外伤、肿瘤和心脑血管疾病的老年患者应行肺栓塞排查。     

The Role of Echocardiography Doppler in Pulmonary Embolism

The purpose of this review is to make a critical analysis of selected literature about the role of echo-Doppler in suspected or proved venous thromboembolism and to address some issues about the potential use of echo-Doppler in specific situations in patients with pulmonary embolism (PE). Echo-Doppler is of great value in patients with suspected PE because many conditions that may be clinically mistaken for PE will be diagnosed. Echo-Doppler should not be used alone to rule out the diagnosis of PE because the ability of the technique in proving the diagnosis of PE in a nonselected population is limited. Echo-Doppler may be of value for diagnosis in selected subgroups of PE patients, mostly in scenarios like the emergency department or intensive care unit. Echo-Doppler is valuable in the hemodynamic assessment of patients with PE, making possible a strategy for risk stratification of in-hospital death in relation to the degree of right ventricle dysfunction at the time of diagnosis of acute PE. Echo-Doppler is useful for serial assessment of patients with established diagnosis of chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Echo-Doppler may be useful in follow-up of patients after a diagnosis of acute PE to enable early identification of patients with persistent pulmonary hypertension / right ventricle dysfunction.     

抗凝治疗对肺栓塞高危因素的AECOPD的临床价值

目的探讨抗凝治疗对具有肺栓塞(PE)高危因素的慢性阻塞性肺疾病急性加重(AECOPD)的临床价值。方法将36例D-二聚体阳性的重度AECOPD患者随机分为抗凝组(A组)和非抗凝组,抗凝组在常规治疗基础上,使用低分子肝素5000μ皮下注射,q12h*7天,观察抗凝组和非抗凝组治疗前后临床症状,D-二聚体,动脉血氧分压的变化。结果抗凝组与非抗凝组比较临床症状改善,动脉血氧分压回升,D-二聚体水平降低等比较,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论具有肺栓塞高危因素,D-二聚体阳性的重度AECOPD患者,应常规给以抗凝治疗。     

慢性阻塞性肺疾病急性加重疑诊合并肺栓塞的抗凝治疗临床分析

目的 探讨对重度慢性阻塞性肺疾病急性加重(acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease,AECOPD)疑诊合并肺栓塞(PE)患者进行抗凝治疗的有效性和安全性.方法 将D-二聚体阳性的37例重度AECOPD患者分为血氧分压正常组(A组)和血氧分压降低组(B组),并对两组患者进一步随机分为抗凝(A1、B1)和非抗凝(A2、B2)两个亚组.分别观察和评估A组和B组抗凝和非抗凝治疗的临床变化.结果 B1,组和B2组比较:临床症状改善、动脉血气分析、D-二体和机械通气时间等比较差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05),两组并发症比较差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05),B1组优于B2组·结论具有静脉血栓栓塞高危因素或临床高度可疑PE、D-二体检测阳性的重度AECOPD机械通气患者,若同时存在低氧血症,特别是存在经持续鼻导管吸氧或无创机械通气难以纠正的低氧血症时,在排除急性左心衰和气胸后,不必等待CTPA或核素肺通气/灌注显像检查确诊,而应当即刻开始给予常规抗凝治疗.     

Acute pulmonary embolism is an independent predictor of adverse events in severe decompensated heart failure patients

BACKGROUND: Congestive heart failure (CHF) is a well-recognized risk factor for venous thromboembolism (VTE) and is associated with higher mortality in patients with an acute pulmonary embolism (PE). There are very few data on how acute PE affects the clinical course of patients with heart failure. The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of an acute PE on the short-term prognosis of patients hospitalized for decompensated CHF. METHODS: This was a prospective cohort study of 198 patients admitted to a coronary care unit between July 2001 and March 2003 with severe decompensated CHF. The primary outcome measure was death or rehospitalization at 3 months. RESULTS: PE was confirmed in 18 of 198 patients enrolled (9.1%). The groups with and without PE were comparable with regards to demographics, the prevalence of comorbid conditions, and severity of CHF (p > 0.05). The prevalence of cancer (p = 0.0001), previous VTE (p = 0.003), and right ventricular overload (p = 0.006) was higher in the PE group. The presence of PE was also associated with a longer hospital stay (37.5 +/- 71.6 days vs 15.4 +/- 15.0 days, p = 0.001) [mean +/- SD] and a higher incidence of death or rehospitalization at 3 months (72.2% vs 43.9%, p = 0.02). In a multiple logistic regression analysis, PE remained an independent predictor of death or rehospitalization at 3 months (odds ratio, 4.0; 95% confidence interval, 1.1 to 15.1; p = 0.038). CONCLUSIONS: Acute PE commonly complicates the hospital course of patients with severe CHF, increasing the length of hospital stay and the chance of death or rehospitalization at 3 months.     

胰腺炎并发胰性脑病37例临床分析

目的 探讨胰腺炎并发胰性脑病（PE）的临床表现、诊断、鉴别诊断及可能诱因。方法 回顾性分析5年来上海6所医院急性胰腺炎并发PE37例患者的临床资料。结果37例PE中男性24例，女性13例，平均年龄53岁（25～80岁）。按Ranson诊断标准33例为重症急性胰腺炎（SAP），4例为轻症急性胰腺炎（MAP），其中迟发性PE（DPE）6例，15例发病前有胰腺手术史。PE死亡率56．8％，DPE为66．7％。临床表现和诊断无特异性，血淀粉酶水平与PE严重程度无相关性。PE出现时常伴发低氧血症和急性呼吸窘迫综合征、水电解质紊乱、氮质血症、消化道出血等并发症。结论 PE是胰腺炎发病过程中的严重并发症，死亡率高，多在重症胰腺炎中伴发。在PE的发病过程中，有些因素也可引起胰腺炎患者的精神症状，如低氧血症、Wernicke脑病等，临床上较易混淆，为确诊带来困难。     

ST-elevation in massive acute pulmonary embolism during hemodynamic instability

Electrocardiogram (ECG) is one of the first procedures performed in the initial assessment of patients with suspected pulmonary embolism (PE), although one of its main advantages is in suspecting alternative clinical conditions, including acute coronary syndrome (ACS).ST-elevation remains an uncommon ECG pattern in PE. Cardiac ultrasound can help to the differential diagnosis from ACS and to a fast detection of acute right ventricle (RV) overload.In the presence of hemodynamic instability, with ECG signs of RV strain and concomitant ST-elevation, massive PE should be suspected as shown in the present case report.     

COPD合并肺栓塞的危险因素及临床特征分析

目的探讨COPD合并肺栓塞(PE)患者的临床特征,并研究其发病的危险因素。方法入选COPD合并PE患者24例设为病例组(COPD+PE组),选取同期COPD急性加重患者54例设为对照组(单纯COPD组),比较两组患者在发生PE危险因素及临床特征之间的差异。结果两组患者在静脉血栓史、恶性肿瘤、6周内手术史、长期卧床(≥7 d)的危险因素比较中差异有统计学意义(P<0.05);晕厥、下肢非对称性肿胀、深静脉血栓形成、SⅠQⅢTⅢ征、PaCO2、血D-二聚体水平差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论 COPD患者发生PE的危险因素为静脉血栓史、恶性肿瘤、6周内手术史、长期卧床(≥7 d)。当COPD患者出现晕厥、下肢非对称性肿胀、深静脉血栓形成、SⅠQⅢTⅢ综合征、PaCO2降低及血D-二聚体升高时,应警惕并发PE。     

Efficacy of rivaroxaban for the treatment of Chinese patients with acute pulmonary embolism: A retrospective study

Pulmonary embolism (PE) is a life-threatening disease, which accounts for the major type of venous thromboembolism. Currently, there is limited understanding and management for PE. Rivaroxaban is reported to treat patients with PE. However, there is still insufficient evidence on rivaroxaban for the treatment of Chinese patients with acute PE. Thus, this retrospective study investigated the benefits and safety of rivaroxaban for Chinese patients with acute PE.A total of 72 Chinese patient cases with acute PE were analyzed in this study. Of these, 36 cases who received rivaroxaban mono-therapy were assigned to the treatment group, while the remaining 36 cases who received standard therapy were assigned to the control group. The benefits were assessed by the duration of hospital stay, treatment satisfaction, and safety.After treatment, rivaroxaban mono-therapy showed better benefits in decreasing the duration of hospital stay (P < .01), increasing treatment satisfaction (P < .01), and reducing mild bleeding (P = .02) in Chinese patients with acute PE, than standard therapy.The results of this study indicated that rivaroxaban may provide more benefits than the standard therapy for Chinese patients with acute PE. Future studies are still needed to warrant the current results.