Gastrointestinal bleeding: the role of radiology

Gastrointestinal bleeding represents a diagnostic challenge both in its acute presentation, which requires the point of bleeding to be located quickly, and in its chronic presentation, which requires repeated examinations to determine its etiology. Although the diagnosis and treatment of gastrointestinal bleeding is based on endoscopic examinations, radiological studies like computed tomography (CT) angiography for acute bleeding or CT enterography for chronic bleeding are becoming more and more common in clinical practice, even though they have not yet been included in the clinical guidelines for gastrointestinal bleeding. CT can replace angiography as the diagnostic test of choice in acute massive gastrointestinal bleeding, and CT can complement the endoscopic capsule and scintigraphy in chronic or recurrent bleeding suspected to originate in the small bowel. Angiography is currently used to complement endoscopy for the treatment of gastrointestinal bleeding.     

上消化道Dieulafoy病18例内镜诊治体会

 目的 探讨消化道Dieulafoy病的临床及内镜诊治特点. 方法 搜集2003年8月～2007年1月我院消化内镜中心823例上消化道出血患者的临床资料,并对经内镜确诊的18例Dieulafoy病患者资料进行回顾性分析.结果 Dieulafoy病好发于胃(55.6%),男性患者多于女性(5∶1),40岁以上居多( 63.6%).本病以反复发作性上消化道出血为主要症状,出血前无明显腹部不适或疼痛.内镜检查及治疗为本病主要诊疗手段.镜下表现特点为片状黏膜糜烂伴中央血管断端显露( 44.4%)、仅有血管断端显露(33.3%)、仅有血栓或血凝块附着(22.2%).内镜治疗以局部注射1∶10 000肾上腺素盐水溶液(35.7%)及使用金属夹(21.4%)居多,两种方法 同时使用者占14.3%,首次止血成功率达100%.结论 临床医师尤其是内镜医师,应提高对本病的认识,对患者进行细致、反复的内镜检查以及及时、有效的镜下治疗.     

Dieulafoy病临床特点及内镜下诊治研究

 目的 总结Dieulafoy病的临床特点、内镜表现及治疗预后,提高对该病的诊治水平.方法 调查1995～2009年非静脉曲张上消化道大出血患者,分析确诊为Dieulafoy病12例的临床表现及内镜诊治情况.结果 (1)患者近期无上腹痛病史,出血前均有诱因;(2)发病急,呕血便血量大,有休克或血容量不足的表现;(3)病变部位胃内占75%,内镜下表现为喷血、滴血、血凝块附着、病变中央呈火柴头样血管显露,周同微小黏膜缺损;(4)内镜下硬化治疗安全有效,手术治疗效果明确.结论 无症状突发上消化道大出血患者,要考虑Dieulafoy病的可能,急诊胃镜检查可确诊,内镜下硬化治疗为首选,复发出血者应手术治疗.     

Autofluorescence as a usefull tool in interventional endoscopy.

Interventional endoscopy is currently an effective method of treating many gastroenterological life-threatening conditions. Among the most serious, there are gastrointestinal bleeding, gastrointestinal strictures and obstruction, as well as neoplastic and pre-cancerous changes in the gastrointestinal tract. The presentation shows the use of autofluorescence in supporting endoscopic treatment in life-threatening conditions such as gastrointestinal bleeding, as well as the use of autofluorescence in endoscopic treatment of pre-neoplastic and neoplastic changes in the gastrointestinal tract, including endoscopic mucosectomy of lesions with a high degree of dysplasia and the assessment of completeness of the procedure. The presented cases show the contemporary possibilities of using the phenomenon of autofluorescence in the diagnosis and prevention of life-threatening conditions in gastroenterology and oncology of the gastrointestinal tract.     

动脉造影及介入治疗对于消化道出血的价值

目的:评价动脉造影对于消化道出血诊断价值及介入治疗疗效价值.方法:33例消化道出血病例中,经动脉血管造影26例发现出血动脉.9例手术治疗,22例进行介入治疗,其中16例灌注血管加压素或止血药,6例进行栓塞治疗.结果:随访2～6个月,3例复发出血,9例手术切除,2例内科治疗,22例介入治疗.结论:非静脉曲张性消化道出血行动脉造影,可发现内镜和其他检查方法不能发现的出血部位,动脉造影是上述检查的重要补充,同时介入治疗是一种安全、微创、有效的治疗方法,亦能为手术做好准确的定位准备.     

Computed tomography enteroclysis for recurrent severe gastrointestinal bleeding in a patient with vascular malformation of the small bowel

This is a case study of a 66-year-old woman who had a vascular malformation of the small bowel that was visualized on computed tomography enteroclysis (CTE). She presented with repeated tarry stool and severe anemia. Although the source of bleeding was not identified on upper and lower gastrointestinal endoscopy, active bleeding was revealed by capsule endoscopy in the deep jejunum. The cause of bleeding was not found on capsule endoscopy. CTE was requested as double-balloon endoscopy would have been difficult because of strong adhesion of the small intestine. A continual subtle vascular malformation of the jejunum, starting from the third jejunal branch end, was demonstrated on CTE with dynamic contrast enhancement. Because this vascular malformation was considered the cause of small intestinal bleeding, selective arterial coil embolization was performed. After embolization, the repeated tarry stool disappeared and the severe anemia dramatically improved. CTE may be a safe and useful method for determining the cause of small intestinal bleeding and for subsequent therapy.     

Use of Provocative Angiography to Localize Site in Recurrent Gastrointestinal Bleeding

Background While the source of most cases of lower gastrointestinal bleeding may be diagnosed with modern radiological and endoscopic techniques, approximately 5% of patients remain who have negative endoscopic and radiological investigations [1]. Clinical Problem These patients require repeated hospital admissions and blood transfusions, and may proceed to exploratory laparotomy and intraoperative endoscopy. The personal and financial costs are significant. Method of Diagnosis and Decision Making The technique of adding pharmacologic agents (anticoagulants, vasodilators, fibrinolytics) during standard angiographic protocols to induce a prohemorrhagic state is termed provocative angiography. It is best employed when significant bleeding would otherwise necessitate emergency surgery. Treatment This practice frequently identifies a bleeding source (reported success rates range from 29 to 80%), which may then be treated at the same session. We report the case of a patient with chronic lower gastrointestinal hemorrhage with consistently negative endoscopic and radiological workup, who had an occult source of bleeding identified only after a provocative angiographic protocol was instituted, and who underwent succeeding therapeutic coil embolization of the bleeding vessel.     

Extramedullary hematopoiesis: unusual meningeal and paranasal sinuses presentation in Paget disease. Case report

PURPOSE: Our experienee in the preoperative diagnostic and therapeutic management of small bowel gastrointestinal stromal tumors, cause of intestinal bleeding, by means of interventional radiological procedures is reported. MATERIALS AND METHODS: From October 1999 to October 2001 6 patients admitted for melena due to bleeding of a gastrointestinal stromal tumor were treated. In all cases the lower and/or upper gastrointestinal endoscopy were the first diagnostic approaches. In two cases a Te 99m pertechnetate-labeled autologous red blood cells (TRBC) scintigraphic examination was also performed. All the patients underwent an abdominal angiography that was followed in two cases by preoperative trans-catheter arterial embolization. All the patients had the surgical resection of the bleeding neoplasm. RESULTS: In all patients, the endoscopic examinations weren't able to localize the exact site of bleeding. The TRBC scintigraphic examination performed in 2 patients was negative in one case, instead gave an incorrect localization of the bleeding site in the other one. The localization of the bleeding tumors was provided by the selective abdominal angiography that also suggested the presumable nature of the neoplasm on the basis of angiographic characteristics. The embolization of the two tumors was technically successful and was followed by surgical resection. CONCLUSIONS: On the basis of our data, we emphasize and confirm the predominant role of interventional radiological procedures in the detection and in the preoperative management of bleeding gastrointestinal stromal tumors of the small bowel.     

Diagnostic procedures in acute gastrointestinal hemorrhage]

In gastrointestinal bleeding, the diagnosis is predominantly made by endoscopy. However, if the bleeding site is in a part of the intestine that cannot be reached by endoscopy, than the diagnosis is based on radiological and scintigraphic methods. In the past 5 years 35 patients with such cases of gastrointestinal bleeding had angiography and/or scintigraphy (n = 15) in our department. Based on our retrospective study of those cases, we advocate a management protocol for such patients based on the hemodynamic presentation.     

Acute gastrointestinal hemorrhage: the changing role of barium examinations.

The emergency evaluation of a patient with acute life-threatening gastrointestinal hemorrhage requires the coordinated efforts of medical, surgical, and radiologic personnel. In most patients with an acute upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage, endoscopy represents the primary diagnostic procedure. Arteriography may follow, depending on the identification of the lesion at endoscopy or the need for therapy through the vascular catheter. Arteriography should precede endoscopy when bleeding is massive or the clinical situation suggests that therapy by a catheter must be instituted on a more urgent basis. When personnel are available to perform endoscopy and arteriography, the barium examination of the upper gastrointestinal tract is best postponed for a few days until the patient can be stabilized completely. In the patient with massive red rectal bleeding and a negative nasogastric aspirate, the arteriogram is clearly the procedure of choice for the emergency diagnostic evaluation. Bleeding diverticular and vascular ectatic lesions can be diagnosed only by arteriography and treatment can usually begin immediately by a catheter infusion of vasopressin. Colonoscopic and barium enema examinations of the acutely bleeding patient are not reliable. In addition, the presence of barium in the colon interferes with arteriography for a number of hours. The barium examination of the colon should be performed at some time during the hospitalization to exclude other possible bleeding lesions and to provide a better overall anatomic assessment of the colon. Both the retrograde and antegrade small bowel enemas are useful in detecting obscure small bowel bleeding lesions that occasionally present as a massive lower gastrointestinal hemorrhage.     

Massive duodenal variceal hemorrhage in a patient with prior Roux-en-Y gastric bypass

Duodenal variceal bleeding is a rare form of variceal bleeding which may be fatal if left untreated. There are no specific guidelines available for their treatment. Medical management, surgical, endoscopic, and interventional radiological procedures have been utilized with varied outcomes. In this case summary we report the successful management of duodenal variceal bleeding in a patient with prior Roux-en-Y gastric bypass . The patient with history of cirrhosis presented with acute gastrointestinal bleeding. Esophagogastroduodenoscopy and colonoscopy could not locate the source of bleeding. Computed tomography of the abdomen demonstrated a large duodenal variceal complex. Interventional radiology (IR) treated the patient with a combination of percutaneous transhepatic embolization and subsequent transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt . No recurrence of gastrointestinal bleeding was noted at follow up. This case demonstrates that percutaneous transhepatic embolization along with transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt may be effective treatment of duodenal variceal bleeding.     

Evaluation of technetium-99m DTPA for localization of site of acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding

Intravenous Tc-99m DTPA was evaluated in 34 patients with active upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Active bleeding was detected in 25 patients: nine in the stomach, 12 in the duodenum, and four from esophageal varices. No active bleeding was seen in nine patients (two gastric ulcers and seven duodenal ulcers). Results were correlated with endoscopic and/or surgical findings. All completely correlated except: 1) one case of esophageal varices in which there was disagreement on the site, 2) three cases of duodenal ulcers that were not bleeding on endoscopy but showed mild oozing on delayed images and 3) one case of gastric ulcer, in which no bleeding was detected in the Tc-99m DTPA study, but was found to be bleeding at surgery 24 hours later. The Tc-99m DTPA study is a reliable method for localization of upper gastrointestinal bleeding with an agreement ratio of 85%. This method also can be used safely for follow-up of patients with intermittent bleeding. It is less invasive than endoscopy, is easily repeatable, and has the same accuracy.     

Comparison of transcatheter arterial embolization and surgery for treatment of bleeding peptic ulcer after endoscopic treatment failure

PURPOSE: To compare the outcomes of embolotherapy and surgery as salvage therapy after therapeutic endoscopy failure in the treatment of upper gastrointestinal peptic ulcer bleeding. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Retrospective analysis of 70 cases of refractory peptic upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage was performed. Thirty-one cases were managed with embolotherapy and 39 were managed surgically. Demographic variables, underlying conditions, clinical findings, endoscopic treatment, transfusion requirements before and after alternative therapeutic approach, length of hospital stay, and outcomes including recurrent bleeding, need for surgery after initial alternative treatment, and in-hospital death were recorded. RESULTS: Patients who received embolotherapy were older (75.2 years +/- 10.9 vs 63.3 years +/- 14.5; P <.001) and had greater incidences of heart disease (67.7% vs 20.5%; P <.001) and previous anticoagulation treatment (25.8% vs 5.1%; P =.018). There were no differences in the rest of the pretreatment variables. No differences were found between the embolotherapy and surgery groups in the incidence of recurrent bleeding (29% vs 23.1%), need for additional surgery (16.1% vs 30.8%), or death (25.8% vs 20.5). CONCLUSIONS: The lack of differences between these two treatment alternatives, despite the more advanced age and greater prevalence of heart disease in the embolotherapy group, provides support for future prospective randomized studies aimed to evaluate the role of embolotherapy in the management of refractory peptic ulcer bleeding.     

胃肠道肿瘤的超声内镜诊治价值

超声内镜（EUS）凭借其独特的优势,通过对胃肠道脏壁层次以及邻近脏器,结构的准确辨认,已成为消化内镜领域中极具临床价值的的检查诊断和引导治疗手段。本文就EUS在消化道恶性肿瘤包括食管癌,胃癌,结直肠癌的术前TN分期,胃肠道黏膜下良性肿瘤的性质判别以及EUS引导下介入性治疗中的应用作一概略评价。     

Obscure gastrointestinal bleeding: evaluation with 64-section multiphase CT enterography--initial experience

This retrospective HIPAA-compliant study was approved by the institutional review board and institutional conflict of interest committee. Patients gave informed consent for use of medical records. The purpose of the study was to retrospectively evaluate the findings depicted at computed tomographic (CT) enterography performed with a 64-section CT system and by using neutral enteric contrast material and a three-phase acquisition in patients with obscure gastrointestinal bleeding (OGIB). Twenty-two outpatients (11 men, 11 women; age range, 37-83 years) with OGIB underwent CT enterography. Findings were compared with capsule and traditional endoscopic, surgical, and angiographic findings. CT enterographic findings were positive for a bleeding source in 10 (45%) of 22 patients. Eight of 10 positive findings at CT enterography were also positive at capsule endoscopy or subsequent clinical diagnosis. CT enterography helped correctly identify three lesions undetected at capsule endoscopy. Study results suggest that multiphase, multiplanar CT enterography may have a role in the evaluation of OGIB.     

An unusual presentation of thoracic aortic aneurysm rupturing into the esophagus: an autopsy case report

Ruptured aortic aneurysms often present with sudden death, and have varied signs and symptoms depending on the site of rupture and hemorrhage. We report a case of an aortic aneurysm with an aorto-esophageal fistula, which showed slow gastrointestinal bleeding for days before death. A 79-year-old male was brought to a hospital emergency unit, with a history of melena for about 3 days, and recent hematemesis. He collapsed immediately after endoscopy and died. A forensic autopsy which was performed due to possible medical malpractice demonstrated a large saccular aneurysm of the descending thoracic aorta with a fistula into the esophagus. A significant finding was a lid or valve shaped thrombus covering the aortic orifice of the fistula, which may have partly contributed to slow bleeding, and which may have been dislodged by endoscopy. This case suggests that very careful management of aorto-esophageal fistula is needed in patients with clinical signs of possible thoracic aortic aneurysm with slow hemorrhage.     

Wireless capsule endoscopy and double-balloon enteroscopy for the diagnosis of obscure gastrointestinal bleeding

Standard endoscopic examination (upper gastrointestinal endoscopy and colonoscopy) fails to detect the cause of gastrointestinal hemorrhage in approximately 5% of patients. Before the availability of wireless capsule endoscopy and double-balloon enteroscopy, imaging modalities for the small intestine distal to the ligament of Treitz included barium contrast examination and/or enteroclysis, push, passive, or intraoperative enteroscopy, technetium 99m labeled sulfur colloid scanning, angiography, and computed tomography, although the diagnostic yield of all of these imaging modalities was low. In 2001, wireless capsule endoscopy became available for the evaluation of patients with probable small intestinal hemorrhage. Advantages of wireless capsule endoscopy include that the procedure is noninvasive, requires no sedation, and does not expose the patient to ionizing radiation. In patients with obscure gastrointestinal hemorrhage, studies have demonstrated an additional 25 to 50% diagnostic yield using wireless capsule endoscopy when compared to other diagnostic modalities. The major limitations of capsule endoscopy were its inability to obtain a biopsy, precisely localize a lesion, or perform therapeutic endoscopy. In 2001, the double-balloon enteroscope was introduced. This new endoscopic technique provides the gastroenterologist with an opportunity for further evaluation and treatment of abnormalities detected on wireless capsule endoscopy or other small intestinal imaging studies.     

Radiologische Diagnostik des Dünndarms

The barium meal with plain X-ray films of the small intestine has for decades been the undisputed gold standard in imaging of the small intestine. More recently, X-rays and fluoroscopy with an overall accuracy of 73% have been replaced by multislice computed tomography (MSCT) or modern magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Ultrasound is suitable for the orienting investigation of the small intestine in the context of general abdominal sonography as well as for dedicated examinations with a sensitivity of 67–96% and a specificity up to 97%. The endoscopic examinations of the small bowel, such as video capsule endoscopy and double-balloon enteroscopy are expensive and time-consuming techniques, which provide valuable information in special indications. Other than with the stomach or colon, the diagnostics of primary small intestine tumors plays a relatively subordinate role due to the low incidence of 3–5% of all gastrointestinal (GI) neoplasms but with a high sensitivity of 84% and a specificity of up to 97% for computed tomography (CT) and MRI. Predominant questions are those concerning ileus or the diagnostics of passage disturbances after preceding operations, to depict bowel obstructions, adhesions or the involvement of the small bowel in peritoneal carcinomatosis. The sensitivity per lesion in the initial evaluation of Crohn’s disease (CD) is 47–68% for capsule endoscopy, 43% for MRI and 21% for CT enterography. In cases of known CD, the sensitivity is 70% for capsule endoscopy and 79% for MRI. A further indication is the evaluation of acute or occult gastrointestinal bleeding.     

Nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding

Nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding (NUGB) remains a major medical problem even after advances in medical therapy with gastric acid suppression and cyclooxygenase (COX-2) inhibitors. Although the incidence of upper gastrointestinal bleeding presenting to the emergency room has slightly decreased, similar decreases in overall mortality and rebleeding rate have not been experienced over the last few decades. Many causes of upper gastrointestinal bleeding have been identified and will be reviewed. Endoscopic, radiographic and angiographic modalities continue to form the basis of the diagnosis of upper gastrointestinal bleeding with new research in the field of CT angiography to diagnose gastrointestinal bleeding. Endoscopic and angiographic treatment modalities will be highlighted, emphasizing a multi-modality treatment plan for upper gastrointestinal bleeding.