听性稳态诱发反应在听力异常婴儿的诊断意义

目的听性稳态诱发反应（auditory steady—statere sponse，ASSR）新技术与视觉强化测听（vision reinforcement audiometry，VRA）阈值的相关性分析研究，探讨听神经病症侯群及其鉴别诊断。方法10例（20耳）对照组，年龄6～12个月，测得ASSR和VRA的正常阈值。16例（26耳）异常听力组患儿（年龄在3～6个月），根据其所患疾病分为3个亚组：Ⅰ组为早孕感染组5例（8耳），Ⅱ组为窒息缺氧组5例（10耳），Ⅲ组为高胆红素血症组6例（8耳），检测畸变产物耳声发射（DPOAE）、听性脑干反应（ABR）潜伏期、肌反射值与ASSR和VRA及其相关性结果对照。结果Ⅰ组中2例次（2耳次）为单纯疱疹病毒感染。5例次（8耳次）DPOAE消失，4例次（6耳次）ABR波Ⅰ潜伏期延长、Ⅰ—Ⅴ波间潜伏期缩短，3例次（6耳次）500Hz和1000Hz的镫骨肌反射正常，2例次（2耳次）镫骨肌反射阈偏高，初步推测单纯耳蜗性病变，排除听神经病可能，测得ASSR平均估计阈值与VRA平均阈值具有很好的相关性（r=0．95～0．98）。Ⅱ组中4例次（8耳次）畸变产物耳声发射消失，其中1例次（2耳次）ABR波Ⅰ、波Ⅲ、波Ⅴ消失和肌反射消失，3例次（5耳次）ABR波Ⅰ消失和波Ⅲ及波Ⅴ潜伏期延长，以及肌反射消失。2例次（3耳次）Ⅰ-Ⅲ波间潜伏期延长，肌反射也消失。推测可能为听神经病症侯群（耳蜗至脑干下听觉传导通路受损）伴有耳蜗功能障碍，测得ASSR平均估计阈值与VRA平均阈值具有较好的相关性（r=0．72～0．84）。Ⅲ组中6例次（8耳次）DPOAE存在，4例次（5耳次）ABR波Ⅰ、Ⅲ、Ⅴ和肌反射消失，2例次（3耳次）Ⅰ—Ⅴ波间潜伏期延长，镫骨肌反射阈正常偏高，初步分析推测为听神经病症侯群病损在脑干以上，测得ASSR平均估计阈值与VRA平均阈值具有很弱的相关性（r=0．43～0．64），ASSR阈值和VRA阈值不一致，进一步说明这组的病损应该在脑干或皮层。3个亚组的每个频率（0．25、0．5、1、2,4kHz）平均ASSR和VRA阈值差值比较，差异都具有统计学意义（F检验，P〈0．05、P〈0．01、P〈0．01、P〈0．05、P〈0．05）。结论通过ASSR阈值和VRA阈值相关性技术研究或许可提供诊断及鉴别诊断在各种频率听力障碍婴儿的听神经病症侯群（病变高位）、听神经病症侯群伴有耳蜗功能障碍（病变低位）以及单纯耳蜗性病（非听神经病）。     

不同病因致婴幼儿听力障碍的听力学分析

目的 探讨不同病因致婴幼儿听力障碍的特点及其鉴别诊断。方法 30例（60耳）正常听力婴幼儿为对照组，年龄6～24个月，行ABR、ASSR、视觉强化测听（vision reinforcement audiometry，VRA）和声导抗检查。20例（36耳）异常听力患儿（年龄6～24个月）根据其所患疾病分为3个组：Ⅰ组7例为围产期缺氧缺血，Ⅱ组7例为出生时核黄胆，Ⅲ组6例为出生时高胆红素血症，对各组患儿分别行畸变产物耳声发射（distortion-product otoacouslic emission，DPOAE）、耳蜗微音电位（CM）、ABR、ASSR、声导抗和VRA检查，并采用F检验进行数据统计学处理。结果①Ⅰ组所有病例DPOAE和CM存在、鼓室导抗图为A型，ABR异常，其中一部份患儿的Ⅲ-Ⅴ波间期延长，另外1例（2耳）ABR的波Ⅳ与波Ⅴ消失，各频率（0．25、0．5、1、2．4kHz）ASSR平均反应阈明显高于VRA平均阈值，其平均相关系数为r=0．41～0．65。②Ⅱ、Ⅲ组一部份患儿（7耳）CM存在，而DPOAE消失（Ⅱ组6耳、Ⅲ组1耳），ABR的波Ⅴ潜伏期和Ⅰ-Ⅲ波间期延长，其中Ⅱ组的ASSR反应阈较接近VRA阈值，其平均相关系数为r=0．92～0．97，而Ⅲ组两者平均阈值的相关系数为r=0．69～0．86。③3组各频率平均ASSR／VRA阈值差值的差异均有统计学意义。结论 不同病因致婴幼儿听力障碍的听力学检测结果不同，应综合分析，这对于采用何种干预方法以及预测干预效果都有非常重要的意义。     

自身免疫性听神经病动物模型的建立及听性脑干反应和畸变产物耳声发射的变化

目的建立自身免疫性听神经病动物模型，探讨其听性脑干反应（auditory brainstem response ABR）和畸变产物耳声发射（distortion product otoacoustic emission DPOAE）的变化特征。方法选取耳廓反射正常的白色豚鼠250只，分离、电泳与纯化豚鼠螺旋神经节及蜗轴内的耳蜗神经纤维抗原，然后与等量完全弗氏佐剂免疫同种豚鼠，其中正常组10只，对照组10只，试验组50只。观察ABR、DPOAE、血清IgG水平、螺旋神经节和耳蜗核团形态学的改变、听神经抗原蛋白在螺旋神经节和耳蜗神经的表达、听神经纤维超微结构的变化。结果免疫后16只动物（32／100耳）出现听性脑干反应阈提高10～25dB，Ⅰ、Ⅲ波潜伏期延长，到免疫后第3周最为明显，随后有逐渐恢复的趋势，其中Ⅲ波潜伏期到第6周恢复正常；该组豚鼠DPOAE没有变化，动物血清IgG显著性升高，与对照组相比差异有统计学意义（F=10．03，P〈0．05）；均有不同程度的螺旋神经节细胞变性、数目减少，螺旋神经节和小血管周围有淋巴细胞浸润；听神经纤维出现脱髓鞘、髓鞘断裂等现象。豚鼠耳蜗核各亚核团平均细胞密度和细胞平均面积各组差异比较没有统计学意义；听神经蛋白完全分布于耳蜗螺旋神经节和听神经纤维组织。免疫后34只动物（68／100耳）没有出现ABR反应阈升高，血清IgG没有升高，与对照组相比差异没有统计学意义，螺旋神经节、耳蜗核团、听神经纤维超微结构没有变化。结论建立了豚鼠自身免疫性听神经病动物模型，该动物模型的ABR反应阈轻中度提高，Ⅰ、Ⅲ波有自然恢复的趋势。DPOAE没有变化。     

谷氨酸对豚鼠畸变产物耳声发射和听性脑干反应的影响

目的 研究外源性谷氨酸对畸变产物耳声发射(distortion product otoacoustlcemission，DPOAE)、听性脑干反应(auditory brainstem response，ABR)及耳蜗形态学的影响。方法应用豚鼠全耳蜗灌流技术，耳蜗灌流10mmol/L谷氨酸2h，分别记录灌流前、后DPOAE和ABR；耳蜗微音电位(cochlear microphonics，CM)和听神经复合动作电位(compound action potential，CAP)；应用透射电镜进行耳蜗形态学观察。结果灌流人工外淋巴液前、后CM及CAP无改变；灌流10mmol／L谷氨酸后DPOAE无改变，ABR潜伏期延长；同样灌流10mmol／L谷氨酸后CM幅度虽有下降、但是其非线性特点无改变；CAP阈值平均升高了35dB；灌流谷氨酸后内毛细胞及其下方神经纤维出现空泡。结论谷氨酸作为耳蜗主要的兴奋性传入神经递质，过度释放可以产生兴奋性毒性，损伤耳蜗内毛细胞及传入神经。同时本实验为建立听神经病的动物模型提供了一个参考方法。     

小儿蜗后听觉神经损害的临床与听力学特征及定位

目的 探讨包含了听神经病在内的ABR严重异常、DPOAE正常为特征的蜗后听觉神经功能障碍小儿的临床与听力学特征及其可能的病损部位.方法 选取2002至2006年听力专科中ABR严重异常、DPOAE正常,排除中耳传导功能异常的患儿86例(165耳),年龄8 d～7岁,平均1岁1个月,入选为本研究对象.选择ABR严重异常、DPOAE异常、排除中耳病变的听功能障碍26例(29耳)患儿作为蜗性病变对照组,选择健康同龄儿童86例(166耳)作为正常对照组,比较蜗后病变、蜗性病变、正常听力3组间ABR波Ⅰ、波Ⅲ、波Ⅴ潜伏期和振幅,以及Ⅰ～Ⅲ波间期等参数的异同.所有数据采用SPSS11.0统计软件包进行t检验.结果 86例蜗后听神经损害患儿中,51例(59.3%)的病例新生儿期有高胆红素血症史,其中40例血中间接胆红素水平达重度标准,11例为轻中度;在首次就诊的原因中,主诉运动障碍者40例(46.5%),听力言语障碍者10例(11.6%);在伴随的疾病中,32例(37.2%)确诊伴随有脑性瘫痪.在86例165耳蜗后听觉神经功能障碍患耳中,103耳最大强度声刺激(103 dB)ABR无波分化,27耳仅见波Ⅰ分化,19耳仅见波Ⅴ分化,13耳见波Ⅰ+Ⅲ分化,3耳见波Ⅰ+Ⅴ分化.仅见波Ⅰ分化耳,其波Ⅰ潜伏期较正常听力耳延长,振幅较正常听力耳低矮(t值分别为-6.75和2.58,P值均<0.05);有波Ⅰ+Ⅲ分化耳,波Ⅰ潜伏期和振幅与正常听力耳差异无统计学意义,波Ⅲ潜伏期则较正常听力耳延长,振幅较正常听力耳低矮(t值分别为-2.77和3.63,P值均<0.05),Ⅰ～Ⅲ波间期较正常听力耳Ⅰ～Ⅲ波间期延长(t=-2.99,P<0.05).结论 在蜗后听觉神经功能损害类型中,最常见的类型为ABR从波Ⅰ开始就严重异常,即听神经病,其病变主要在第Ⅷ颅神经听支;仅见波Ⅰ分化耳,其病变部位主要在第Ⅷ颅神经听支以后;ABR有波Ⅰ+波Ⅲ分化耳,主要病变部位在波Ⅲ的发源神经核团,即上橄榄核以后的听觉神经通路.振幅低矮的波Ⅴ不是听神经病独有的特征.高胆红素血症导致的蜗后听觉神经系统病变的病例中,其受侵害部位的先后次序可能为大脑皮层、腩干听觉神经核团、第Ⅷ对颅神经听支.     

P0蛋白免疫豚鼠的听力学研究

目的:探讨内耳纯化PO蛋白免疫豚鼠的听力学变化.方法:制备纯化内耳PO蛋白.分析20只经内耳纯化PO蛋白免疫后豚鼠的ABR、听神经动作电位(CAP)、畸变产物耳声发射(DPOAE)的检查结果.结果:20只动物经PO蛋白免疫后死亡4只,余16只(32耳)动物中,7耳(22%,7/32)出现ABR反应阈升高,波Ⅰ、Ⅲ潜伏期及Ⅰ-Ⅲ、Ⅰ-Ⅳ波间期明显延长(P<0.01),但Ⅲ-Ⅳ间期无明显变化;CAP(N1)幅值均有不同程度的下降,潜伏期延长(P<0.01));POAE各频率的幅值无明显改变,对侧白噪声抑制效应存在,有减弱的趋势,但与对照组无明显差异(P>0.05).结论:纯化的内耳P0蛋白是内耳重要的自身抗原之一,可导致部分豚鼠的听神经和内耳出现自身免疫性疾病.     

PLP139-151多肽诱导实验性自身免疫性脑脊髓炎女鼠的听带和形态学改变

目的 制作实验性自身免疫性脑脊髓炎（experimntal autoimmune encephalomyelitis，EAE）动物模型，研究髓鞘蛋白脂质蛋白（proteolipid protein，PLP）139-151多肽诱导的EAE大鼠听觉和听觉传导径路组织学改变，探讨其对大鼠听力的影响。方法 动物分实验组和对照组，实验组大鼠用PLP139-151和含结核杆菌的完全福氏佐剂混合制成的抗原配剂行双侧后肢足垫下注射，制作EAE大鼠模型，对照组用生理盐水混合完全福氏佐剂注射。观察大鼠免疫前后体重变化和临床症状评分，检测EAE大鼠免疫前后听性脑干反应（auditory brajnstem response，ABR）、听神经复合动作电位（compound action potential，CAP）、中潜伏期反应（middle latency response，MLR）及畸变产物耳声发射（distortion products otoacoustic emissiom，DPOAE）的变化，并利用电镜、免疫组织化学染色和Western blot等方法观察EAE大鼠听神经及脑干组织学改变。结果 免疫后EAE大鼠体重降低，症状评分在免疫后第14～21天达最高峰；ABR反应阈升高，ABR的波Ⅱ、Ⅴ潜伏期，Ⅰ-Ⅴ、Ⅱ-Ⅴ波间期和CAP的N2波潜伏期延长、波幅降低；MLR的Na、Pa潜伏期明显延长；DPOAE可正常引出，于免疫早期可见低频幅值升高；对照组听力学检测无明显改变。电镜下可见EAE大鼠听神经中枢端髓鞘松散、局部变薄或融合，免疫组织化学染色可见脑干白质局灶性脱髓鞘改变，可累及耳蜗核；Western blot显示听神经PLP蛋白表达减少，髓鞘碱性蛋白（MBP）未见明显改变。结论 EAE大鼠的病理改变主要浸润白质，可引起听觉中枢和听神经中枢端少突胶质细胞脱髓鞘，导致听觉中枢传导径路的听力学改变。     

双侧耳蜗切除术致听力剥夺大鼠的听性脑干反应改变

目的：通过比较大鼠在双侧耳蜗切除术后不同时间点听性脑干反应（ABR）的变化,探讨ABR在测试听力剥夺大鼠模型中的应用价值。方法：选取2周龄SD大鼠40只,随机分为实验组4组（2周组、4周组、6周组、8周组）和对照组4组,每组5只（10耳）。实验组动物在双侧耳蜗损毁术后不同时间点与其对照组行ABR检测,记录ABR阈值及各波潜伏期和波间期。结果：实验组ABR反应阈明显升高,与对照组相比,差异有统计学意义（P〈0．01）,各波潜伏期和波间期明显延长（P〈0．01）;实验2周组、4周组与6周组和8周组相比,ABR反应阈的差异也有统计学意义（P〈0．01）。结论：双侧耳蜗切除术可导致大鼠ABR反应阈明显增高,各波潜伏期和波间期明显延长;听力剥夺效果从术后4周开始越发明显。     

听性脑干反应严重异常和耳声发射正常的小儿听力障碍的临床特征分析

目的探讨包含小儿听神经病在内的听性脑干反应(auditory brainstem response，ABR)严重异常，畸变产物耳声发射(distortion product otoacoustic emission，DPOAE)正常为特征的听功能障碍症侯群的病因学特征、病损部位与临床听力学特点。方法选取2002～2004年听力专科中ABR严重异常、DPOAE正常，排除中耳传导功能异常的患儿98例(168耳)入选为研究组。根据神经康复科医师的评估，作出是否伴有精神运动发育迟缓及其相关病因的诊断，统计伴有精神运动发育迟缓的研究组中听力损失高危因素的类型与比例；选择ABR严重异常、DPOAE异常、排除中耳病变的患儿46例(82耳)作为蜗性病变对照组，比较研究组与蜗性病变患儿ABR的异同点；选择健康同龄小儿40例(72耳)作为正常对照组，观察研究组与正常听力小儿ABR和DPOAE的异同点。结果①研究组98例患儿中，83.67％患儿伴有精神运动发育迟缓的临床症状，其相关的致病因素中，以新生儿高胆红素血症所占的比例最高；②103 dB强度刺激声(听力级)刺激时，无波分化的为53耳、仅能记录到波Ⅴ的7耳，90dB强度刺激声仅能记录到Ⅴ波的9耳，80dB仅能记录到Ⅴ波的4耳，共73耳(43．45％)，病损部位主要在听神经远端；103dB强度刺激声仅能记录到波Ⅰ，其他各波缺失的28耳(16．07％)，病损部位主要在低位脑干；可同时记录到波Ⅰ 波Ⅲ和(或)波Ⅴ的67耳(39．88％)，其中有16耳能引出1kHz纯音同侧镫骨肌声反射，提示耳蜗、第Ⅷ颅神经听支、低位脑干或有可能均存在不同程度的受累；③高频区DPOAE幅值正常或轻微下降，中高频区DPOAE引出率与正常对照组一致。结论新生儿高胆红素血症是包含小儿听神经病在内的ABR严重异常DPOAE正常为特征的听功能障碍症侯群的最主要致病因素，临床上应积极预防和及时治疗，以减少小儿听神经病的发生；包含小儿听神经病在内的ABR严重异常DPOAE正常为特征的听功能障碍症侯群的听力学改变具有多样性，在临床诊断上应加以注意。     

听阈正常耳鸣患者听性脑干反应检测的特点及临床意义

目的研究听阈正常耳鸣患者听性脑干反应(auditory brainstem response,ABR)、畸变产物耳声发射(dis-tortion product evoked otoacoustic emissions, DPOAE)客观测试结果的特点,探讨ABR检测在耳鸣中的意义。方法对24例听力正常单侧耳鸣为主诉的患者进行纯音听阈、DPOAE和ABR检测,对比耳鸣侧和健侧的听阈、DPOAE各频率检出率及幅值和ABR各波波幅及潜伏期结果,进行统计分析。结果 24例患者双侧纯音听阈全部≤25dBHL,双侧无显著差异;DPOAE各频率检出率及幅值双侧无显著性差异;ABR结果中Ⅰ波波幅在耳鸣侧较健侧降低(t=-2.681,P<0.05),而Ⅲ、Ⅴ波波幅双侧无显著性差异,各波幅比双侧无显著性差异;Ⅰ、Ⅲ、Ⅴ各波潜伏期及波间期双侧无显著性差异。结论 ABR中Ⅰ波波幅下降代表听阈正常的耳鸣患者可能已经存在耳蜗早期变化,对耳鸣早期临床诊断有重要意义。     

The expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and VEGF‐C in early laryngeal cancer: relationship with radioresistance

The expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and VEGF‐C in early laryngeal cancer: relationship with radioresistance Angiogenesis is essential for tumour growth and invasion. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is a prime mediator of tumour angiogenesis. VEGF‐C is a closely related protein that effects lymphatic endothelial cells and may be important in the process of lymphatic metastasis. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the expression of these cytokines in patients with T1 and T2a glottic, squamous cell carcinoma, in comparison with normal epithelial control tissue, to ascertain any association with radioresistance. Twenty‐two tumours treated by radiotherapy (13 radiosensitive, nine radioresistant) and seven normal control tissues were studied. The minimum follow‐up was 2 years after radiotherapy. Expression of VEGF and VEGF‐C was evaluated by immunohistochemistry of formalin‐fixed, paraffin‐embedded biopsy specimens. Analysis was carried out using a quantitative computer image analyser. Both VEGF and VEGF‐C were detectable in tumour and normal control specimens. There was increased expression in tumour specimens of both VEGF (P = 0.03) and VEGF‐C (P < 0.001). In addition, the expression of VEGF‐C was associated with tumours of higher histological grade (P = 0.021). There was, however, no difference in VEGF and VEGF‐C expression between radioresistant and radiosensitive tumours. The expression of VEGF and VEGF‐C is increased in early laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). However, measuring the expression of these proteins cannot predict radioresistance in this tumour group.     

Treatment of Maxillary Sinus Carcinoma: Clinical Results Using the Kitasato Modality

The conventional therapeutic regimen for maxillary sinus carcinoma consists of dissection of the maxilla, full-dose irradiation and extensive chemotherapy. However, the results obtained with this treatment are often poor. Even when patients recover, their quality of life is significantly reduced as a result of deformity of facial structures and swallowing and articulation dysfunctions. A retrospective analysis of 68 patients with maxillary sinus carcinoma treated with the Kitasato modality between 1975 and 1999 was conducted. All patients underwent pergingival maxillary sinus surgery combined with pre- and postoperative irradiation therapy with standardized total doses of 16 Gy; the postoperative irradiation was given in combination with regional intra-arterial infusion chemotherapy administered via the superficial temporal artery. All visible tumor lesions were removed where possible in order to preserve or facilitate cellular immunity after surgery. The cumulative 5-year survival rates were 85.7% for Stage II patients, 88.1% for Stage III, 76.6% for Stage IVA and 75.0% for Stage IVB.     

Tongue Base Reduction with Temperature-controlled Radiofrequency Volumetric Tissue Reduction for Treatment of Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome

In recent years a considerable effort has been made to establish the use of different surgical techniques for the treatment of obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS). Nevertheless, treatment of hypopharyngeal obstruction due to tongue base hypertrophy remains in many ways an unsolved problem. The aim of this study was to evaluate the safety and efficacy of tongue base reduction with temperature-controlled radiofrequency volumetric tissue reduction in the treatment of OSAS. Twenty patients with OSAS and tongue base hypertrophy were treated with radiofrequency tissue ablation. An intensified treatment protocol was used, delivering 2,800 J per treatment session under local anesthesia. Two nights of polysomnography testing were performed before and after treatment. Daytime sleepiness, snoring and postoperative morbidity were assessed using questionnaires. Mean respiratory disturbance index (RDI) was reduced from 32.1 to 24.9/h after a mean of 3.4 treatment sessions. Six patients (33%) were cured after the procedure (reduction in RDI of &#83 50% and a postoperative RDI of <15/h) and ten (55%) showed an improvement of >20% in their RDI. Daytime sleepiness and snoring improved significantly. Peri- and postoperative morbidity was low; one severe complication occurred (tongue base abscess). We were able to achieve similar cure and responder rates to those reported in a recently published pilot study but with a reduced number of treatment sessions. We believe that this technique may improve patient acceptance and have beneficial cost implications.     

Cervical Reflex Induced by Click Stimuli in Cats

We studied click-evoked potentials in the anterior horn of the spinal cord in 17 cats. A concentric needle electrode was inserted into the anterior horn of the spinal cord at levels C3-C6. Potentials evoked with 105 dB SPL clicks were recorded with a peak latency of 4.89-5.10 ms only at the C3 level. These responses were observed 45-60 dB SPL above the auditory brainstem response (ABR) threshold, and no potentials were evoked by stimulation of the contralateral ear. Average was performed 100 times with changes in stimulation frequency of 1-20 Hz. The amplitude of the potentials decreased with increasing stimulus frequency, but there were no changes in ABRs. The responses disappeared after destruction of the medial vestibulospinal tract at the obex level, but ABRs were still recorded. The spinal nucleus of the accessory nerves was located in the anterior horn of the spinal cord at levels C1-C6, and the sternocleidomastoid muscle motoneurons were found at levels C1-C3. The click-evoked potentials recorded in this study reflect responses of the spinal nucleus of accessory nerves through the vestibulospinal tract to click stimulation. The responses have the same characteristics as vestibular-evoked myogenic potentials that can be recorded using surface electrodes over the sternocleidomastoid muscles of humans.     

Lack of significant estrogen and progesterone receptor expression in nasal telangiectasias in hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia: an immunohistochemical analysis

Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS) is characterized by snoring and apnea during sleep leading to decreased oxygen saturation and disturbed sleep, excessive daytime sleepiness and neuropsychological disturbances. This study investigates cognitive neuropsychological abilities in a group of 53 OSAS patients before and after treatment with uvulopalatopharyngoplasty. General intellectual ability, verbal learning and memory as well as executive functioning were measured at baseline and 6 months postoperatively. After surgery there were significant improvements in verbal learning and memory (mean change - 39, SD 57.3, p <0.001), recall (mean change - 24.3, SD 39.3, p <0.001) and executive functioning (as assessed by percentage of errors on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test; mean change-9.1, SD 15.7, p <0.001). These improvements were in accordance with improvements in the degree of sleep apnea, the oxygen desaturation index (mean change -9.7, SD 15.9, p <0.001) and arterial minimum oxygen saturation (mean change 4.5%, SD 10.2%, p <0.01). Surgical treatment seems to improve verbal learning, memory and recall and executive functions in parallel with better oxygenation in OSAS.     

Measurement of chemosensory function

Although hundreds of thousands of patients seek medical help annually for disorders of taste and smell, relatively few medical practitioners quantitatively test their patients' chemosensory function, taking their complaints at face value. This is clearly not the approach paid to patients complaining of visual, hearing, or balance problems. Accurate chemosensory testing is essential to establish the nature, degree, and veracity of a patient's complaint, as well as to aid in counseling and in monitoring the effectiveness of treatment strategies and decisions. In many cases, patients perseverate on chemosensory loss that objective assessment demonstrates has resolved. In other cases, patients are malingering. Olfactory testing is critical for not only establishing the validity and degree of the chemosensory dysfunction, but for helping patients place their dysfunction into perspective relative to the function of their peer group. It is well established, for example, that olfactory dysfunction is the rule, rather than the exception, in members of the older population. Moreover, it is now apparent that such dysfunction can be an early sign of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's. Importantly, older anosmics are three times more likely to die over the course of an ensuring five-year period than their normosmic peers, a situation that may be averted in some cases by appropriate nutritional and safety counseling. This review provides the clinician, as well as the academic and industrial researcher, with an overview of the available means for accurately assessing smell and taste function, including up-to-date information and normative data for advances in this field.