Persistent and acute diarrhoea as the leading causes of child mortality in urban Guinea Bissau.

An investigation of child mortality in a semi-urban community, Bandim II, in the capital of Guinea Bissau was carried out from April 1987 to March 1990. 153 deaths were recorded among 1426 live-born children who were followed for 2753 child-years. The under-five mortality risk was 215 per 1000 children (95% confidence interval [CI] 176-264), infant mortality 94 per 1000 (95% CI 73-115), and perinatal mortality 52 per 1000 (95% CI 41-63). By prospective registration of morbidity, post-mortem interviews, and examination of available hospital records, a presumptive cause of death was established in 86% of the deaths. Persistent and acute diarrhoea were the most frequent causes of death, accounting for 43 and 31 deaths per 1000 children, respectively. Fever deaths (possibly malaria), neonatal deaths, acute respiratory infections, and measles were other frequent causes. The access to health services was relatively easy: 75% of the children who died had attended for treatment at a hospital or a health centre. It is important to find ways of preventing and managing persistent diarrhoea, the major cause of death, and to improve the control of acute diarrhoea by a targeted approach.     

Mortality trends among refugees in Honduras, 1984-1987

Mortality data collected from 1984 to 1987 through a routine standardized health information system in the five main refugee populations of Honduras were reviewed. The direct standardized mean annual death rate for all refugees was 5.5 per 1000 population (Honduras population as reference; Honduras mortality rate: 10.1 per 1000). Mortality decreased or remained stable among Salvadoran refugees from 1984 to 1987, but increased among Nicaraguan refugees after 1985. The highest neonatal (56.1 per 1000 livebirths), infant (126.1 per 1000 livebirths) and under-five-year-olds (35.7 per 1000 child less than five years of age) mortality rates were observed in the two Nicaraguan camps. These two camps had the highest rate of newly arriving refugees. Deaths in infants and under-five-year-olds accounted for 42 and 54.1% of all deaths respectively. Of all deaths under five years of age, respiratory infections, diarrhoeal diseases and measles accounted for 21.4%, 22.1% and 4.7%, respectively. Mortality rates, particularly among under-five-year-olds and infants increased when the rate of newly arriving refugees was higher. The importance of adapted health surveillance in refugee settlements is discussed.     

Flood control embankments contribute to the improvement of the health status of children in rural Bangladesh.

Every year, Bangladesh experiences major floods that inundate about one-third of the country. Therefore, flood control projects that comprise earthen dikes and irrigation/drainage systems are built along the major rivers to protect the people living in low-lying areas, stabilize the river banks and improve agricultural productivity. However, the adverse effects of these projects are regularly emphasized, such as environmental degradation and reduction of fishing supplies. The Demographic Surveillance System of the International Centre for Diarrhoeal Diseases Research, Bangladesh (ICDDR,B) was used to assess the effect of a flood control programme on the mortality of 0-4-year-old children residing in the Matlab study area. Adjusted mortality rates were used in comparing four adjacent child populations residing either inside or outside a flood-control embankment and according to the type of health services provided in this area. Between the periods 1983-86 and 1989-92, the crude child mortality in the total study area decreased by 37%, from 185.9 per 1000 live births to 117.9 per 1000 live births. Following the construction of the embankment, death rates outside were up to 29% higher in 1-4-year-old children and 9% higher for 0-4-year age group compared to the flood-protected area (P < 0.001). Simultaneously, in the same study area, health interventions contributed to a 40% reduction in mortality among children less than 5 years of age in all causes of deaths (P < 0.001). Migration patterns and the effect of distances to the hospital are discussed.     

Acute respiratory infections in children under five years. Control project in Bagamoyo District, Tanzania

Control of acute respiratory infections (ARI) in children under five years of age has been implemented as an integrated part of Primary Health Care in rural Bagamoyo District in Tanzania. Community supported Village Health Workers visited each family at their homes every six to eight weeks, giving health education on recognition and prevention of ARI, treating children with pneumonia on the spot with oral Cotrimoxazole or referring them to the next higher level of care. Within a two-year period the total under five mortality has been reduced by 27.2% from 40.1 to 29.2/1000 children aged under five per year. The disease-specific mortality rate for pneumonia has been reduced by 30.1% from 14.3 to 10.0/1000 under-five per year, contributing 40% to the overall mortality reduction. It is concluded that an active health service outreach programme, within Primary Health Care, can efficiently reduce high child mortality rates from ARI and other diseases. A similar approach will be used to tackle other problems such as diarrhoeal diseases, malnutrition, malaria and child spacing.     

Child survival activities in Madhya Pradesh -- past,present and future strategies and planning

A large number of children die before they are 1 year old and many more die before they are 5 years old. Madhya Pradesh, India, has higher infant and child mortality rates compared with the national rate. The infant mortality rate (IMR) was 122/1000 live births in 1985. The National Health Policy of 1983 provided specific indicators for the achievement of certain basic health and family welfare goals and made a commitment to provide primary health care to all by year 2000. The government of Madhya Pradesh started the child survival program in 1987 and also opened a separate ministry for the welfare of mothers and children. To achieve the target of IMR below 60/1000 live births and for minimizing morbidity and mortality among children, the following recommendations should be observed: strengthening of available antenatal care; identification of high risk mothers and their special care; proper birth spacing; correction of maternal malnutrition; conducting 100% of deliveries by trained personnel or traditional birth attendants; special health care programs for child survival in slums, tribal areas, and remote rural areas; identification and special care for high risk babies; complete and optimum immunization; growth monitoring and home-based records; need-based training of workers suitable to the social system; equipment and technical expertise in the delivery of neonatal care or provision of equipped nursery; control of childhood diarrheas and optimum use of oral rehydration solution; research in the field of innovative and low cost techniques; development of managerial skills among the workers at different levels; ongoing research for the identification of other major diseases in childhood and their control; and development of a feedback system.     

From birth to adulthood in rural Ethiopia: the Butajira Birth Cohort of 1987

Long‐term birth cohorts from developing countries are uncommon. Here a unique birth to 18‐years cohort based on all births during 1987 in a rural area of Ethiopia is presented. This was the first year of the ongoing Butajira Rural Health Programme, since when the sampled population has been followed up in regular household visits. A total of 1884 livebirths in 1987 formed the cohort, corresponding to a birth rate of 0.31 per woman per year; the male : female ratio was 1.10. Perinatal mortality was 22 per 1000 livebirths, and infant mortality 65 per 1000 livebirths. Survival from birth to 18 years was 760 per 1000. Living in Butajira town had a considerable survival advantage compared with the surrounding villages. Most deaths were due to infections. Four per cent of the cohort experienced the death of their mothers before the age of 18 years, and 15 of the girls delivered their own children, suggesting that 1 in 25 women may bear a child before their eighteenth birthday in this community. The children in the cohort received no consequent special care or attention, and so they probably accurately represent the harsh realities of growing up in rural Ethiopia at the turn of the Millennium. The huge gaps between their experience and that of their contemporaries in more affluent settings are a scandal of the 21st century.     

Cerebral palsy births in eastern Denmark, 1987--90: implications for neonatal care

The Cerebral Palsy Register in eastern Denmark has collected cases using a uniform data sampling procedure since birth year 1979. We have investigated changes in the rate of cerebral palsy, related to gestational age, mortality and perinatal risk factors in children born 1983--90. The total cerebral palsy birth prevalence decreased from 3.0 in the birth year period 1983--86 to 2.4 per 1000 live births (P < 0.01) in 1987--90, owing to a decrease among all preterm infants (29--19 per 1000, P < 0.001). The perinatal and early neonatal mortality in preterm infants was unchanged from 1983--86 to 1987--90. The rate of cerebral palsy in term infants was 1.5 per 1000 in all birth-year periods from 1979--90. Among the cerebral palsy infants, the proportion of very preterm babies treated with mechanical ventilation in the neonatal period decreased from 95% in 1983--86 to 61% in 1987--90 (P < 0.001), while the group treated with CPAP among the moderately preterm babies increased from 61% to 78% (P < 0.05). The significant decline in cerebral palsy rate in preterm infants born 1987--90 may be due to a change in treatment at the neonatal intensive care units using less mechanical ventilation, a hypothesis which needs further investigation.     

西安市综合性妇幼卫生项目指标分析

目的 :了解西安市综合性妇幼卫生项目主要指标达标情况。方法 :对西安市项目县 1995年～ 2 0 0 1年孕产妇及 7岁以下儿童保健服务及健康指标进行分析 ,采用 SPSS软件进行数据分析及统计学处理 ,利用 EXEL软件进行有关图形的绘制。结果 :孕产妇死亡率 2 0 0 1年为 18.0 3/10万 (降至 10 0 /10万以下 )、婴儿死亡率 2 0 0 1年为 12 .2 6‰(降至 45‰以下 )均达到项目的目标要求。孕产妇系统管理率及 7岁以下儿童保健管理率逐年上升。孕产妇死亡率与孕产妇系统管理率呈负相关 (r=- 0 .15 4,P=0 .0 0 0 ) ,婴儿死亡率与儿童保健管理率呈显著负相关 (r=- 0 .96 1,P=0 .0 0 0 )。孕产妇死亡与婴儿死亡呈显著正相关 (r=0 .998,P=0 .0 0 0 )。结论 :项目主要指标孕产妇、婴儿死亡率均达到项目的目标要求。项目实施后妇幼保健管理服务得到提高 ,孕产妇、儿童健康水平得到了提高。今后在工作中 ,要加强项目的巩固工作 ,加强重点人群的保健服务     

No improvement in weight-for-age of young children in southern Senegal, 1969-1992, despite a drastic reduction in mortality. Evidence from a growth monitoring programme

BACKGROUND: Undernutrition is associated with an increased risk of death among young children in developing countries. Infant and child nutritional status and mortality were monitored in a rural area of Casamance, Senegal. METHODS: Analysis of weight measurements taken at 3-24 months of age during routine growth monitoring in the community's private dispensary 1969-1992 (3912 children, 4642 child-years) and of mortality rates of children estimated from maternal recall for 1960-1985 and yearly census 1985-1995. RESULTS: Between 1960-1964 and 1990-1994, under-5 and child (1-4 years) mortality rates decreased from 312 to 127 and from 201 to 68 per 1000, respectively. About 90% of resident children attended growth monitoring in 1985-1992. Mean weight-for-age was at a minimum at 15 months of age (-1.60 z-scores [SD: 0.95]); the prevalence of underweight was 33.2% (95% CI: 31.5, 34.9). The latter increased significantly over time, both when comparing all years of follow-up (P for trend <0.01) and over three pre-defined time periods (28.6, 34.6, and 35.0% in 1969-1974, 1975-1984, and 1985-1992, respectively, P for trend <0.05). Mean weight-for-age decreased over time in infancy and in the second year of life. CONCLUSION: No improvement in nutritional status was found among young children 1969-1992 despite a drastic decrease in mortality. Focused public health interventions such as vaccinations and malaria prevention probably did not enhance weight-for-age. Paradoxically, growth monitoring may have been more helpful in improving health than growth.     

Impact on mortality of a community-based programme to control acute lower respiratory tract infections.

Acute lower respiratory tract infections (ALRIs) are a major cause of death among young children in developing countries. A targeted programme designed to treat children with ALRI was implemented in 1988 in a primary health care project in rural Bangladesh. In the 2 years preceding the introduction of the programme (1986-87), non-ALRI-specific health services were provided, including promotion of oral rehydration therapy, family planning, immunization of children and mothers, distribution of vitamin A, referral of severely sick children to field clinics, and nutritional rehabilitation of malnourished children. The targeted ALRI programme, which was in place in 1988-89, was based on systematic ALRI case detection and management by community health workers, who were linked to a referral system for medical support. These two levels of intervention have been evaluated by comparing the ALRI-specific mortality in the programme area and a neighbouring control area during the two periods. During the first phase (1986-87), the ALRI mortality among under-5-year-olds was 28% lower in the intervention than in the comparison area (P less than 0.01). During the second phase (1988-89), the ALRI mortality was 32% lower in the intervention area than during the preceding phase, while there was no significant difference for the comparison area. These findings suggest that in the study region the combination of specific and nonspecific interventions can reduce ALRI mortality by as much as 50% and the overall mortality among under-5-year-olds by as much as 30%.     

Study of general mortality and of mortality related to malaria in the mountains of Kivu, Zaire

A longitudinal study in the "health region" of Katana (Kivu, Za?re) has permitted to determine age and disease specific mortality rates. The infant mortality rate is 172 per 1000/year, the child mortality rate 45 p.1000/year and the crude rate 24 p.1000/year. Two thirds of this mortality are related to infectious and parasitic diseases: measles, diarrhoea, respiratory diseases and malaria. In the mountainous Katana region (4500 feet), malaria is responsible for 12%, of the decrease and the specific mortality rates are 3 p.1000/year in the general population and 18 and 6 p.1000/year in, respectively, the 0 to 11 month and 1 to 4 year age groups. We discuss the potential of PHC to improve, in the framework of an integrated development approach, this unfavorable health situation.     

Implications of health care provision on acute lower respiratory infection mortality in Bangladeshi children

This study uses a geographic information system to evaluate the effects of health care provision on acute lower respiratory infection (ALRI) mortality in very young children in rural Bangladesh. Since 1988, an ALRI control program has been operating in a rural area of Bangladesh in an effort to decrease morbidity and mortality of children suffering from ALRI. ALRI-specific mortality data for very young children (<2 years of age) were obtained from a surveillance system of the area from 1988 to 1993. The ALRI mortality data were aggregated by clusters of households called baris. In order to avoid bias in the population size of haris, spatial moving averages of ALRI-specific death rates were calculated. The relationships between ALRI death rates and several environmental and health service provision variables were measured using regression analysis. The results show that the ALRI mortality rate was 54% lower in the community-based ALRI control program area than in a comparison area where there was no intervention. Greater access to allopathic practitioners was related to lower ALRI mortality rates while access to indigenous practitioners was related to higher mortality. In conclusion, the benefit of the community-based ALRI control program, using a simple case management strategy and improved access to allopathic practitioners, should be replicated in other rural areas of Bangladesh in an effort to reduce child ALRI mortality.     

Causes of neonatal and postneonatal mortality in Nigerian children

Although infant mortality has decreased drastically in developed countries, the situation is still far from satisfactory in many developing countries. In Nigeria for example, the infant mortality rate currently ranges from 90 per 1000 in urban areas to as high as 100 per 1000 in rural areas. This study was undertaken to ascertain the causes of infant deaths among Nigerian children and to determine the relative contributions of neonatal and post neonatal mortality to the infant mortality. During the one - year study period #opMay, 1987 April, 1988#cp a total of 754 deaths were recorded in the study hospital.

The leading causes of death during the neonatal period were neonatal jaundice and prematurity-accounting for Proportionate Mortality Ratios of 23.0 and 18.7 respectively. Gastroenteritis marasmus#shkwashiokor were the major contributors to post-neonatal mortality #opPMRs, 14.7 and 11.4#cp. Post-neonatal mortality accounted for 36 percent of the total infant mortality. Implications of these findings to our primary health care strategies are discussed.     

Beri-beri: the major cause of infant mortality in Karen refugees

During a prospective evaluation of malaria prophylaxis in pregnancy in a refugee population on the north-western border of Thailand from 1987 to 1990, an extremely high infant mortality rate (18%) was documented despite good access to health care. Infantile beri-beri was recognized as the main cause of death accounting for 40% of all infant mortality. Thereafter, severe vitamin B1 deficiency in infants was diagnosed and treated promptly. The impact of this was assessed prospectively from 1993 to 1996 in a second cohort study. The case fatality of infantile beri-beri fell from almost 100% to 7%. The overall infant mortality rates declined from 183 to 78 per 1000 live births. Post-neonatal deaths fell by 79% (95% CI 65-87%) while neonatal mortality remained unchanged. Mortality resulting from acute respiratory infections did not change (15 and 11 per 1000, respectively), whereas mortality attributable to beri-beri decreased from 73 to 5 per 1000 (P < 0.0001). Before its recognition approximately 7% of all infants in this population died from infantile beri-beri. This lethal but preventable syndrome may be more common than hitherto recognized, particularly in refugee populations, in this populous region.     

Mortality due to sudden infant death syndrome in Northern Italy, 1990-2000: a baseline for the assessment of prevention campaigns

The aim of this paper is to estimate the infant mortality rate and the incidence of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) in Lombardy, Northern Italy, in the period 1990-2000 and to provide basic information for a subsequent comparison of the SIDS incidence before and after the risk-intervention campaign. A retrospective epidemiological study was carried out using all deaths of resident infants occurring up to 1 year of age as recorded by the health districts mortality registries of the Lombardy region, between 1990 and 2000. The infant mortality rate was 4.1 per 1000 live births, with a significant decreasing trend. This decrease is mainly due to the fall in mortality for congenital malformations and perinatal diseases. The SIDS incidence rate was 0.13 per 1000 live births; the annual incidence of SIDS during the study period decreased significantly by 60% from 0.20 to 0.08 deaths per 1000 live births (P = 0.001). When 'possible SIDS deaths', not directly labelled as SIDS, were also considered, the rate of SIDS was 0.54 per 1000 live births. The incidence of SIDS in Northern Italy appears much lower than anticipated. SIDS remains the single leading cause of death in the first year of life after the early neonatal period.     

Efficacy of an infection control programme in reducing nosocomial bloodstream infections in a Senegalese neonatal unit

Neonatal nosocomial infections are public health threats in the developing world, and successful interventions are rarely reported. A before-and-after study was conducted in the neonatal unit of the H?pital Principal de Dakar, Senegal to assess the efficacy of a multi-faceted hospital infection control programme implemented from March to May 2005. The interventions included clustering of nursing care, a simple algorithm for empirical therapy of suspected early-onset sepsis, minimal invasive care and promotion of early discharge of neonates. Data on nosocomial bloodstream infections, mortality, bacterial resistance and antibiotic use were collected before and after implementation of the infection control programme. One hundred and twenty-five infants were admitted immediately before the programme (Period 1, January-February 2005) and 148 infants were admitted immediately after the programme (Period 2, June-July 2005). The two groups of infants were comparable in terms of reason for admission and birth weight. After implementation of the infection control programme, the overall rate of nosocomial bloodstream infections decreased from 8.8% to 2.0% (P=0.01), and the rate of nosocomial bloodstream infections/patient-day decreased from 10.9 to 2.9/1000 patient-days (P=0.03). Overall mortality rates did not differ significantly. The proportion of neonates who received antimicrobial therapy for suspected early-onset sepsis decreased significantly from 100% to 51% of at-risk infants (P<0.001). The incidence of drug-resistant bacteria was significantly lower after implementation of the programme (79% vs 12%; P<0.001), and remained low one year later. In this neonatal unit, simple, low-cost and sustainable interventions led to the control of a high incidence of bacterial nosocomial bloodstream infections, and the efficacy of these interventions was long-lasting. Such interventions could be extended to other low-income countries.     

Priority trends in the realization of complex programs aimed at decreasing infant mortality in the regions of high mortality rate

Approaches to reducing infant mortality in southern regions of USSR are outlined. Middle Asia and Kazakhstan comprise 16.7% of the USSR population; the birth rate in this region is 34-39/1000, and the birth interval is 2 years (often, 1 year). Infant mortality rate is 25/1000 births; more than 46% of children die during the 1st year of life. In the structure of infant mortality, infections and respiratory diseases are dominant. The peak of infant morality occurs during the summer (July-September). Special surveys indicated an unsatisfactory state of health of pregnant women associated with nutritional deficiency, observance of certain religious customs, and occupational exposure to agricultural chemicals. The adopted program for the regions with high infant mortality consists of the following priority measures: family planning and birth control; improvement of the health of women of child-bearing age; nutrition of pregnant women; breast feeding for mothers with young children; strict adherence to the labor laws for working women; improvement of the social and legislative assistance to a family; improvement of the system of outpatient care facilities for large families; development of a system of emergency care; carrying out social, hygienic and medical measures of control of intestinal and other hospital infections; drastic changes in the methods and style of educational campaign; campaign against harmful customs; development of the system of medical genetic care and prenatal diagnosis; improvement of the training of medical personnel.     

Healthier mothers and babies

At the beginning of the 20th century, for every 1000 live births, six to nine women in the United States died of pregnancy-related complications, and approximately 100 infants died before age 1 year. From 1915 through 1997, the infant mortality rate declined >90% to 7.2 per 1000 live births, and from 1900 through 1997, the maternal mortality rate declined almost 99% to <0.1 reported death per 1000 live births (7.7 deaths per 100,000 live births in 1997). Environmental interventions, improvements in nutrition, advances in clinical medicine, improvements in access to health care, improvements in surveillance and monitoring of disease, increases in education levels, and improvements in standards of living contributed to this remarkable decline. Despite these improvements in maternal and infant mortality rates, significant disparities by race and ethnicity persist. This report summarizes trends in reducing infant and maternal mortality in the United States, factors contributing to these trends, challenges in reducing infant and maternal mortality, and provides suggestions for public health action for the 21st century.     

Child mortality in a collapsing African society.

A cohort study of mortality among under-5-year-olds was carried out in two Somali villages in 1987-89, a period of economic and political collapse in the rural parts of the country. Analysed was the relative importance of the social characteristics for under-5-year-old mortality against a background of deteriorating political and economic conditions. Mortality increased among under-5-year-olds from 1987 (211 per 1000) to 1988 (323 per 1000) to 1989 (414 per 1000). The mortality risk was more pronounced for boys than girls and was more so for infants than children aged 1-4 years. The major signs prior to death were respiratory infections, diarrhoeal diseases, fever/malaria and tetanus in the neonatal period. Over the 3-year study period mortality rates for diarrhoeal diseases increased significantly, while those for respiratory infections and diseases preventable by immunization increased more slowly. The increasing trend in under-5-year-old mortality was more pronounced in instances when the mother derived her major income from sources other than farming and in larger households.