顶压手法结合多针撬拨复位内固定治疗跟骨骨折临床疗效和安全性的比较研究

目的:探讨顶压手法结合钢针微创撬拨复位治疗不同类型跟骨骨折的疗效和安全性,分析微创撬拨复位的治疗指征。方法:2008年12月至2011年12月采用随机分组、平行对照的方法,前瞻性对135例闭合性跟骨骨折患者分别应用撬拨复位内固定和切开复位内固定进行治疗。撬拨组69例(82足),男60例,女9例;年龄18～64岁,平均(43.29±10.46)岁;左足30例,右足26例,双足13例;Essex-Lopresti分型舌状骨折54足,关节压缩骨折28足;SandersⅡ型33足,Ⅲ型49足。钢板组66例(75足),男58例,女8例;年龄21～63岁,平均(46.00±2.42)岁;左足31例,右足26例,双足9例;Essex-Lopresti分型舌状骨折48足,关节压缩骨折27足;SandersⅡ型28足,Ⅲ型47足。根据Kerr评分标准评价基于Sanders分型和Essex-Lopresti分型结合应用下的疗效,并观察术后并发症情况。结果:135例患者术后24周获随访,所有骨折在8～12周愈合,平均愈合时间10.2周。撬拨组中,针道感染2例,退针5例,无发生神经血管损伤;钢板组中,术后切口皮缘坏死18例,腓肠神经损伤5例,两组差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。术后24周疗效观察,在SandersⅡ型骨折中,撬拨组和钢板组的舌状骨折和关节压缩骨折治疗优良率均在70%以上,差异无统计学意义(P>0.05);SandersⅢ型骨折中,撬拨组和钢板组对舌状骨折的疗效相近,差异无统计学意义(P>0.05),而对关节压缩骨折,钢板组疗效优于撬拨组(P<0.01)。撬拨复位对SandersⅡ、Ⅲ型舌状骨折在疼痛评分、行走能力评分和Kerr总分比较等方面优于关节压缩骨折(P<0.05,P<0.01);SandersⅢ型关节压缩骨折使用钢板内固定较撬拨方法在工作能力评分、行走能力评分上更好(P<0.05)。结论:顶压手法结合多针撬拨复位内固定对SandersⅡ型中的舌状骨折、关节压缩骨折、SandersⅢ型中的舌状骨折具有微创操作、并发症少等优点。SandersⅢ型中的关节压缩骨折应该采用切开复位内固定治疗。     

经皮撬拨复位空心螺钉与切开复位钢板内固定治疗SandersⅡ、Ⅲ型跟骨骨折的比较

目的比较经皮撬拨复位空心螺钉和切开复位钢板内固定治疗SandersⅡ、Ⅲ型跟骨骨折的临床疗效。方法将110例SandersⅡ、Ⅲ型跟骨骨折患者根据入院单双日分为撬拨复位组、切开复位组,每组55例。比较两组手术指标、解剖学相关指标和疗效(AOFAS踝-后足评分标准)。结果患者术后1、3、6个月均成功进行了返院复查。手术时间、术中出血量、住院时间、完全负重时间撬拨复位组均少于切开复位组(P 0. 05)。术后6个月与术前比较,两组B?hler角与Gissane角显著上升、跟骨宽度显著下降(P 0. 05)。术后6个月Gissane角撬拨复位组高于切开复位组(P 0. 05)。末次随访按AOFAS踝-后足评分标准评定临床疗效,撬拨复位组优良率为81. 82%,切开复位组优良率为72. 73%,差异有统计学意义(P 0. 05)。空心螺钉脱出、皮肤浅表感染、创伤性关节炎并发症发生情况撬拨复位组显著少于切开复位组(P 0. 05)。结论经皮撬拨复位空心螺钉和切开复位钢板内固定治疗SandersⅡ、Ⅲ型跟骨骨折效果均佳,但是经皮撬拨复位空心螺钉固定治疗具有手术时间短、组织损伤小、并发症少、临床疗效更好的优势。     

微创撬拨复位钢针并石膏固定治疗Sanders Ⅱ型、Ⅲ型跟骨骨折

目的观察应用微创经皮撬拨复位钢针内固定并石膏外固定方法治疗SandersⅡ型、Ⅲ型跟骨骨折的临床疗效。方法对42例SandersⅡ型、Ⅲ型跟骨骨折,采用C臂X线机下钢针撬拨复位钢针内固定并石膏外固定。结果 42例SandersⅡ型、Ⅲ型跟骨骨折术后12个月复查跟骨轴位侧位片,距下关节面达到或者接近解剖复位(移位≤2 mm)Bohler角30°,Gissane角125°。经随访12~24个月,均无针道感染、骨折再移位及足弓塌陷等并发症发生,患足外形良好,按Maryland足部评分系统进行功能评估,优25例,良12例,可5例,优良率达88%。结论明确跟骨骨折治疗原则,合理选择撬拨复位钢针固定适应症及禁忌症并掌握适当手术时机及娴熟操作技巧,采用经皮撬拨复位钢针并石膏固定方法治疗SandersⅡ型、Ⅲ型跟骨骨折,具有微创,固定可靠,简便易行,并发症少等优点。     

经皮轴位多重交叉固定治疗粉碎性跟骨关节内骨折

目的 评价多位点撬拨复位经皮轴位多重交叉固定治疗跟骨关节内粉碎性骨折的临床疗效.方法 采用多位点撬拨复位经皮轴位多重交叉固定治疗跟骨关节内骨折36例(44足).结果 本组获6～30个月随访.SandersⅡ、Ⅲ型优良率分别为83.3%和81.8%;Ⅳ型未采用切开复位内固定术,优良率为62.5%.结论 多位点撬拨复位经皮...     

跟骨关节内骨折切开复位与撬拨复位治疗比较

目的评价跟骨关节内骨折切开复位与撬拨复位的疗效。方法我院自2005年1月至2009年12月收治85例共98足跟骨骨折,成功随访51例58足,其中撬拨复位24足,切开复位34足。按Maryland评分标准进行评价患者术后功能,术后X片Bohler角的恢复情况,患者术后踝关节的活动角度以及VAS疼痛评分法评价患者术后日常生活的自我舒适度。结果随访51例58足,随访率为62．4％;随访时间为3个月～4年,平均23个月。随访时切开复位内固定组及撬拨复位管型石膏固定组Maryland评分、术后踝关节的活动角度以及VAS疼痛评分,各指标比较显示切开复位内固定组均明显优于撬拨复位管型石膏固定组,差异有统计学意义（P〈0．05）。结论对于跟骨关节内骨折,特别是Sanders分型Ⅲ-Ⅳ型患者宜采取切开复位内固定治疗。     

切开复位内固定治疗移位的跟骨关节内骨折

目的探讨切开复位跟骨钢板内固定治疗跟骨关节内骨折的效果。方法自2001年8月至2003年4月,采用切开复位内固定治疗移位的跟骨关节内骨折34例35足。所有骨折均采用Sanders分型,应用广泛外侧入路,AO跟骨钢板内固定。对有选择的病例进行了植骨。应用影像学检查和美国足踝协会的后足评分系统进行结果评价,患者全部获得随访。平均随访时间18.3个月(12～32个月)。结果共完整随访Ⅱ型骨折30足,Ⅲ型骨折5足。术前平均Bhler角是5.6°,随访时平均Bhler角是28.2°。X线测量表明在单侧跟骨骨折患者跟骨高度恢复为健侧的97.7%。80%的患者取得关节面的解剖复位或近解剖复位。平均评分在SandersⅡ型骨折为88分,Ⅲ型骨折为79分。优良率在SandersⅡ型骨折为83%,Ⅲ型骨折为60%。总的优良率为79%。结论对于SandersⅡ型和Ⅲ型骨折患者采用切开复位内固定治疗,效果较好。     

波及距下关节的跟骨骨折的治疗

目的 探讨波及距下关节的跟骨骨折的治疗。方法 32例38侧跟骨骨折，按Sandees分型，分别对15侧SandersⅡ型骨折采用C臂透视经皮穿针撬拔复位加石膏外固定、23侧SandersⅢ-Ⅳ型骨折运用切开复位自体髂骨植骨及Y型钢板内固定方法进行治疗。结果 所有病例均获随访，时间为6～36个月。术后按Maryland足部评分系统进行功能评估，总体优良率为81．6％。结论 Sanders Ⅱ型跟骨骨折，宜选用撬拔复位石膏外固定；而Sanders Ⅲ-Ⅳ型骨折需切开复位内固定。     

微创撬拨复位空心螺钉和切开复位钢板内固定治疗SandersⅡ型、Ⅲ型跟骨骨折的效果比较

目的比较微创撬拨复位空心螺钉和切开复位钢板内固定在治疗SandersⅡ型、Ⅲ型跟骨骨折中的效果。方法回顾性分析2016-11—2019-01间永城市红十字医院收治的80例SandersⅡ型、Ⅲ型跟骨骨折患者资料。将2016-11—2017-12间行切开复位钢板内固定治疗的38例患者作为对照组,将2018-01—2019-01间行微创撬拨复位空心螺钉内固定的42例患者作为微创组。对2组患者手术治疗以及随访10～12个月时的足踝功能等指标进行比较分析。结果微创组手术及住院时间均短于对照组,术中出血量及术后并发症发生率少于对照组,差异均有统计学意义(P0.05)。2组患者跟骨宽度、Bohler角、Cissane角均显著优于术前(P0.05)。但2组的跟骨宽度、Bohler角、Cissane角、术后骨折愈合时间,以及AOFAS评分等差异均无统计学意义(P0.05)。结论微创撬拨复位空心螺钉和切开复位钢板内固定治疗SandersⅡ型、Ⅲ型跟骨骨折,均有良好效果。但微创撬拨复位空心螺钉内固定的手术时间短、术中出血量少、安全性高,是治疗SandersⅡ型、Ⅲ型跟骨骨折较为理想的微创术式。     

小切口复位空心钉内固定治疗跟骨骨折

目的探讨经距下关节小切口撬拨复位植骨结合经皮空心钉内固定治疗SandersⅡ、Ⅲ型跟骨关节内骨折的疗效。方法采用跟骨外侧距下关节小切口撬拨复位后植入同种异体骨+经皮空心螺钉内固定治疗35例SandersⅡ、Ⅲ型跟骨骨折患者。测量术前术后Bhler角和Gissane角的变化,根据角度变化数值观察关节面恢复情况。结果 35例均获随访,时间10～32(14±3.5)个月,患者骨折均愈合。未出现切口感染、皮瓣坏死、腓肠神经损伤等并发症。按Maryland足部评分标准评价手术效果:优23例,良9例,可2例,差1例,优良率达91.4%。结论距下关节小切口复位、植骨、经皮空心螺钉内固定治疗SandersⅡ、Ⅲ型跟骨骨折,软组织损伤少、关节面复位好,疗效满意。     

跟骨骨折治疗研究进展

跟骨骨折是常见的足部损伤,可选择非手术治疗、切开复位内固定、微创撬拨克氏针固定、关节融合术或外固定支架等多种治疗方法。切开复位内固定作为目前跟骨骨折治疗的主流术式,治疗跟骨关节内骨折疗效满意,尤其是Sanders Ⅱ型和Ⅲ型骨折,但对于Ⅳ型骨折的治疗及是否植骨存在争议,其缺点是软组织并发症较高。跟骨骨折经皮微创撬拨复位内固定日益受到重视,但由于目前对跟骨骨折分类、撬拨复位适应证、固定方法、疗效评价标准等选择不一导致了临床疗效存在差异。跟骨骨折的治疗较为复杂,各种治疗方法均有其优点和不足,不能为追求解剖复位盲目扩大切开复位手术指征。根据患者损伤程度、骨折类型,合理选择适宜的治疗方案将有助于提高疗效。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.