Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in New Mothers: Results from a Two‐Stage U.S. National Survey

Abstract: Background: Prevalence rates of women in community samples who screened positive for meeting the DSM‐IV criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder after childbirth range from 1.7 to 9 percent. A positive screen indicates a high likelihood of this postpartum anxiety disorder. The objective of this analysis was to examine the results that focus on the posttraumatic stress disorder data obtained from a two‐stage United States national survey conducted by Childbirth Connection: Listening to Mothers II (LTM II) and Listening to Mothers II Postpartum Survey (LTM II/PP). Methods: In the LTM II study, 1,373 women completed the survey online, and 200 mothers were interviewed by telephone. The same mothers were recontacted and asked to complete a second questionnaire 6 months later and of those, 859 women completed the online survey and 44 a telephone interview. Data obtained from three instruments are reported in this article: Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptom Scale‐Self Report (PSS‐SR), Postpartum Depression Screening Scale (PDSS), and the Patient Health Questionnaire‐2 (PHQ‐2). Results: Nine percent of the sample screened positive for meeting the diagnostic criteria of posttraumatic stress disorder after childbirth as determined by responses on the PSS‐SR. A total of 18 percent of women scored above the cutoff score on the PSS‐SR, which indicated that they were experiencing elevated levels of posttraumatic stress symptoms. The following variables were significantly related to elevated posttraumatic stress symptoms levels: low partner support, elevated postpartum depressive symptoms, more physical problems since birth, and less health‐promoting behaviors. In addition, eight variables significantly differentiated women who had elevated posttraumatic stress symptom levels from those who did not: no private health insurance, unplanned pregnancy, pressure to have an induction and epidural analgesia, planned cesarean birth, not breastfeeding as long as wanted, not exclusively breastfeeding at 1 month, and consulting with a clinician about mental well‐being since birth. A stepwise multiple regression revealed that two predictor variables significantly explained 55 percent of the variance in posttraumatic stress symptom scores: depressive symptom scores on the PHQ‐2 and total number of physical symptoms women were experiencing at the time they completed the LTM II/PP survey. Conclusion: In this two‐stage national survey the high percentage of mothers who screened positive for meeting all the DSM‐IV criteria for a posttraumatic stress disorder diagnosis is a sobering statistic. (BIRTH 38:3 September 2011)     

Thoughts and Emotions During Traumatic Birth: A Qualitative Study

ABSTRACT: Background: Previous research shows that 1 to 6 percent of women will develop symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder after childbirth. The objective of this study was to examine thoughts and emotions during birth, cognitive processing after birth, and memories of birth that might be important in the development of postnatal posttraumatic stress symptoms. Methods: In a qualitative study, women with posttraumatic stress symptoms (n= 25) and without (n = 25) were matched for obstetric events to examine the nonmedical aspects of birth that made it traumatic. Women were interviewed 3 months after birth. Results: The following themes emerged for all women: thoughts during birth included mental coping strategies, wanting labor to end, poor understanding of what was going on, and mental defeat. More negative than positive emotions were described during birth, primarily feeling scared, frightened, and upset. Postnatal cognitive processing included retrospective appraisal of birth, such as taking a fatalistic view and focusing on the present, for example, concentrating on the baby. Memories of birth included not remembering parts of the birth and forgetting how bad it was. Women with posttraumatic stress symptoms reported more panic, anger, thoughts of death, mental defeat, and dissociation during birth; after birth, they reported fewer strategies that focused on the present, more painful memories, intrusive memories, and rumination, than women without symptoms. Conclusions: The results provide a useful first step toward identifying aspects of birth and postnatal processing that might determine whether women develop postnatal posttraumatic stress symptoms. Further research is needed to broaden knowledge of posttraumatic stress disorder before drawing definite conclusions (BIRTH 34:3 September 2007)     

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and psychological distress following medical and surgical abortion

Objective: Abortion can be a difficult event to cope with and can lead to the development of psychological disturbance. The aim of this prospective and longitudinal study was to assess and to predict Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) symptoms following abortion. Moreover, this study aimed to assess whether the type of abortion had an impact on women’s experience. Method: Eighty-six women were approached a few hours after the abortion and then 6 weeks later. Several questionnaires were completed: the Impact of Event Scale Revised (IES-R), the Multidimensional Scale of Social Support (MSPSS), the Peritraumatic Dissociative Experience Questionnaire (PDEQ), the Peritraumatic Emotions List (PEL), the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), the Perinatal Grief Scale (PGS) and the Texas Grief Inventory (TGI). Results: Six weeks after the abortion, 38% of women reported a potential PTSD and a significant decrease of the anxious symptomatology was also highlighted. Peritraumatic dissociation and peritraumatic emotions were the main predictors of the intensity of post-abortum PTSD symptoms. Compared to surgical abortion, medical abortion was associated with increasing the risk of developing a possible PTSD. Conclusion: By providing evidence on some of the main risk factors, this study highlights the need for psychological support for women and strategies of prevention to be developed.     

The Patient Observer: Eye-Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing for the Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress following Childbirth

Abstract: Background: No standard intervention with proved effectiveness is available for women with posttraumatic stress following childbirth because of insufficient research. The objective of this paper was to evaluate the possibility of using eye-movement desensitization and reprocessing treatment for women with symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder following childbirth. The treatment is internationally recognized as one of the interventions of choice for the condition, but little is known about its effects in women who experienced the delivery as traumatic. Methods: Three women suffering from posttraumatic stress symptoms following the birth of their first child were treated with eye-movement desensitization and reprocessing during their next pregnancy. Patient A developed posttraumatic stress symptoms following the lengthy labor of her first child that ended in an emergency cesarean section after unsuccessful vacuum extraction. Patient B suffered a second degree vaginal rupture, resulting in pain and inability to engage in sexual intercourse for years. Patient C developed severe preeclampsia postpartum requiring intravenous treatment. Results: Patients received eye-movement desensitization and reprocessing treatment during their second pregnancy, using the standard protocol. The treatment resulted in fewer posttraumatic stress symptoms and more confidence about their pregnancy and upcoming delivery compared with before the treatment. Despite delivery complications in Patient A (secondary cesarean section due to insufficient engaging of the fetal head); Patient B (second degree vaginal rupture, this time without subsequent dyspareunia); and Patient C (postpartum hemorrhage, postpartum hypertension requiring intravenous treatment), all three women looked back positively at the second delivery experience. Conclusions: Treatment with eye-movement desensitization and reprocessing reduced posttraumatic stress symptoms in these three women. They were all sufficiently confident to attempt vaginal birth rather than demanding an elective cesarean section. We advocate a large-scale, randomized controlled trial involving women with postpartum posttraumatic stress disorder to evaluate the effect of eye-movement desensitization and reprocessing in this patient group. (BIRTH 39:1 March 2012)     

Gestational and Postnatal Cortisol Profiles of Women With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and the Dissociative Subtype

Objective

To test the hypothesis that women with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have greater salivary cortisol levels across the diurnal curve and throughout gestation, birth, and the postpartum period than women who do not have PTSD.

汶川大地震妇女创伤后应激障碍的抽样调查研究

目的:调查地震灾害对灾区妇女特别是孕产妇的心理影响,以及社会支持对灾区妇女心理健康的保护作用。方法:于地震发生后第3个月,采用PTSD检查量表平民版(PCL-C)和社会支持量表(MSPSS)对绵阳地区孕妇和育龄期非孕妇女进行问卷调查,并进行相关分析。结果:孕妇组和对照组中各有7例(15.2%)和18例(33.3%)预测发生创伤后应激障碍(PTSD),两组PTSD发生率差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。对照组PCL-C与MSPSS测量结果之间明显负相关(r=-0.414,P=0.002),孕妇组则无相关性(P>0.05)。结论:地震给妇女的心理健康造成影响,较高的社会支持对于降低孕妇的应激反应程度可能起到一定的保护性作用。     

Maternal Request for Cesarean Section due to Fear of Birth: Can It Be Changed Through Crisis‐Oriented Counseling?

ABSTRACT: Background: A psychosocial team was established to meet the needs of an increasing number of pregnant women referred for fear of birth who wished a planned cesarean. This study describes the intervention, the women’s psychosocial problems in relation to degree of fear of birth, changes in their wishes for mode of birth and birth outcome, women’s satisfaction with the intervention, and their wishes for future births. Methods: The study sample comprised 86 pregnant women with fear of birth and a request for planned cesarean, who were referred for counseling by a psychosocial team at the University Hospital of North Norway in the period 2000–2002. Data were gathered from referral letters, from antenatal and intrapartum care records, and from a follow‐up survey conducted 2 to 4 years after the birth in question. Results: Fear of birth was accompanied by extensive psychosocial problems in most women. Ninety percent had experienced anxiety or depression, 43 percent had eating disturbances, and 63 percent had been subjected to abuse. Twenty‐four percent of those with psychiatric conditions had previously been in treatment. After the intervention, 86 percent changed their original request for cesarean section and were prepared to give birth vaginally. The follow‐up survey confirmed long‐term satisfaction with having changed their request for a cesarean delivery. Of these, 69 percent gave birth vaginally and 31 percent were delivered by cesarean for obstetrical indications. Conclusions: Impending birth activates previous traumatic experiences, abuse, and psychiatric disorders that may give rise to fear of vaginal birth. When women were referred to a specialist service for fear of birth and request for cesarean, they became conscious of, and to some degree worked through, the causes of their fear, and most preferred vaginal birth. They remained pleased with their choice later. (BIRTH 33:3 September 2006)     

Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and risk of screening positive for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A cross-sectional study

ObjectivesHypertensive Disorders of Pregnancy (HDP) encompass a spectrum of disorders that affect 6–8% of US pregnancies. We aim to determine the impact of self-reported history of HDP as a risk factor for screening positive for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), which results from exposure to a traumatic event, and to evaluate whether the risk of PTSD differed by severity of HDP.Study designWe conducted an online survey on the Preeclampsia Foundation website that is accessed worldwide by women who have experienced HDP, as well as their friends and family. 1448 women in total responded to the survey, including 1076 women who reported a history of HDP in at least one prior pregnancy and 372 women who reported no history of HDP during any prior pregnancy.Main outcome measuresWe measured PTSD outcome with the Breslau Short Screening Scale for DSM-IV PTSD. We used logistic regression to model the relationship between PTSD and HDP.ResultsWomen who reported a history of HDP were more than four times as likely to screen positive for PTSD than women who reported having a normotensive pregnancy history (OR_adj = 4.46, 95% CI: 3.20–6.20). In addition, there was a marked trend toward increasing risk of screening positive for PTSD as the severity of HDP increased from gestational hypertension to eclampsia (p < 0.001).ConclusionsWomen with a history of HDP may be at increased risk of PTSD, with severe cases most likely to suffer from symptoms. Clinicians should consider implementing routine screenings during post-partum visits in this vulnerable population.     

The Influence of Prior Perinatal Loss on Parents' Psychological Distress After the Birth of a Subsequent Healthy Infant

Objective: To evaluate the long-term influence of a previous perinatal loss on parents' psychological distress during a subsequent childbearing experience.
Design and Sample: A cohort design was used to examine 36 couples with a history of prior perinatal loss. Data were collected during the third trimester of pregnancy, 3 months postpartum, and again 8 months after birth.
Measures: Outcome measures included posttraumatic stress (The Impact of Event Scale), depressive symptoms (Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale), anxiety (Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory), and parental concerns and attitudes (Maternal/Paternal Attitudes Questionnaire).
Results: Levels of depressive symptoms ( p <.001), anxiety ( p <.001), and posttraumatic stress ( p =.046) significantly decreased over time in this population. However, levels of posttraumatic stress remained in the moderate range even at 8 months after birth. Depression was significantly correlated with posttraumatic stress at each time point. In addition, depression was significantly related to posttraumatic stress, anxiety, and concerns parents had about their infant's well-being at T3.
Conclusion: While levels of anxiety and depressive symptoms decreased for parents who have experienced a previous perinatal loss, posttraumatic stress levels remained moderately high. It is unclear how this compares to parents without losses. These may be the unique symptoms and concerns these parents have about their new infant. Parents with a history of prior loss should have assessments carefully tailored to their experiences to anticipate continued psychological distress.     

703例水中分娩对新生儿窒息的影响分析

目的:了解水中分娩是否会增加新生儿窒息的风险.方法:纳入从2012年4月至2013年3月在四川省妇幼保健院水中分娩的703例产妇(其中水中待产153例,水中生产550例)作为研究组,同期常规分娩无妊娠合并症、并发症足月单胎头位产妇658例作为对照组.比较研究组和对照组间新生儿窒息及严重呼吸并发症的发生情况.结果:研究组703例水中分娩共有13例发生新生儿窒息,发生率为1.8％(13/703),其中水中待产组有5例(3.3％,5/153),根据Apgar评分有1例为重度窒息,其余均为轻度窒息;水中生产组有8例(1.5％,8/550)新生儿窒息,均为轻度.对照组658例常规分娩发生新生儿窒息的有6例,均为轻度,发生率为0.9％.研究组新生儿窒息发生率高于对照组,但差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).水中待产组新生儿窒息发生率高于水中生产组,但差异也无统计学意义(P＞0.05).水中待产组1例重度窒息使用了经鼻持续气道正压通气(NCPAP),水中生产组有2例窒息新生儿发生严重的胎粪吸入综合征,使用呼吸机辅助通气.结论:水中分娩可能会增加新生儿窒息的发生率,但本研究差异无统计学意义,尚需扩大样本进一步研究.     

Critical Interpretive Synthesis of Qualitative Data on the Health Care Ecosystem for Vulnerable Newborns in Low- to Middle-Income Countries

ObjectiveTo critically assess and synthesize qualitative findings regarding the health care ecosystem for vulnerable (low-birth-weight or sick) neonates in low- to middle-income countries (LMICs).Data SourcesBetween May 4 and June 2, 2020, we searched four databases (Medline [PubMed], SCOPUS, PsycINFO, and Web of Science) for articles published from 2010 to 2020. Inclusion criteria were peer-reviewed reports of original studies focused on the health care ecosystem for vulnerable neonates in LMICs. We also searched the websites of several international development agencies and included findings from primary data collected between May and July 2019 at a tertiary hospital in Kenya. We excluded studies and reports if the focus was on healthy neonates or high-income countries and if they contained only quantitative data, were written in a language other than English, or were published before 2010.Study SelectionOne of the primary authors conducted an initial review of titles and abstracts (n = 102) and excluded studies that were not consistent with the purpose of the review (n = 60). The two primary authors used a qualitative appraisal checklist to assess the validity of the remaining studies (n = 42) and reached agreement on the final 13 articles.Data ExtractionThe two primary authors independently conducted open and axial coding of the data. We incorporated data from studies with different units of analysis, types of methodology, research topics, participant types, and analytical frameworks in an emergent conceptual development process according to the critical interpretive synthesis methodology.Data SynthesisWe synthesized our findings into one overarching theme, Pervasive Turbulence Is a Defining Characteristic of the Health Care Ecosystem in LMICs, and two subthemes: Pervasive Turbulence May Cause Tension Between the Setting and the Caregiver and Pervasive Turbulence May Result in a Loss of Synergy in the Caregiver–Parent Relationship.ConclusionBecause pervasive turbulence characterizes the health care ecosystems in LMICs, interventions are needed to support the caregiver–parent interaction to mitigate the effects of tension in the setting.     

Effects of Connective Tissue Massage on Pain in Primiparous Women After Cesarean Birth

Objective

To evaluate the efficacy of connective tissue massage to reduce postoperative pain in primiparous women on Postoperative Day 1 after unplanned cesarean birth.