Variation in postpartum contraceptive method use: results from the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS)

Objective

The National Survey of Family Growth has been a primary data source for trends in US women’s contraceptive use. However, national-level data may mask differences in contraceptive practice resulting from variation in local policies and norms.

Study Design

We used the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System, a survey of women who are 2–4 months postpartum. Information on women’s current method was available for 18 reporting areas from 2000 to 2009. Using the two most recent years of data, we computed the weighted proportion of women using specific contraceptive methods according to payment for delivery (Medicaid or private insurance) and examined differences across states. We used log binomial regression to assess trends in method use in 8 areas with consecutive years of data.

Results

Across states, there was a wide range of use of female sterilization (7.0–22.6%) and long-acting reversible contraception (LARC; 1.9–25.5%). Other methods, like vasectomy and the patch/ring, had a narrower range of use. Women with Medicaid-paid deliveries were more likely to report female sterilization, LARC and injectables as their method compared to women with private insurance. LARC use increased ≥ 18% per year, while use of injectables and oral contraceptives declined by 2.5–10.6% annually.

Conclusions

The correlation in method-specific prevalence within states suggests shared social and medical norms, while the larger variation across states may reflect both differences in norms and access to contraception for low-income women. Surveys of postpartum women, who are beginning a new segment of contraceptive use, may better capture emerging trends in US contraceptive method mix.

Implications

There is considerable variation in contraceptive method use across states, which may result from differences in state policies and funding for family planning services, local medical norms surrounding contraceptive practice, and women’s and couples’ demand or preference for different methods.     

Postpartum contraception: needs vs. reality

Background

The postpartum time is a unique time to address patient's contraceptive needs and provide education. There are little data to suggest the best approach to provide information about contraception after delivery.

Study Design

Postpartum patients in an urban university hospital were asked to complete a written survey on postpartum contraception. Participants were asked about contraception counseling offered both antepartum and postpartum. Participants were also asked if they would have elected to have an intrauterine device (IUD) inserted immediately after delivery. Participants were contacted 4–6 months after delivery regarding ongoing contraceptive use.

Results

One hundred seventy-five surveys were completed; 77% (134) reported discussing contraception antepartum, and 87% (153), postpartum. Thirty percent of women reported discussing IUD insertion at an antepartum visit and 31% reported discussing it in the hospital prior to discharge. Twenty-three percent (39) of women would have elected immediate post-placental IUD placement if available. Of the 59 patients who were able to be contacted 4–6 months after delivery, 5% reported using an IUD. Twenty-two percent (13) of the participants contacted at follow-up still desired an IUD, of which 62% would have elected postplacental placement, if available. Twenty-nine percent of women reported using no contraceptive method and 32% reported using a method which is not highly effective.

Conclusions

Prenatal visits and postpartum contact with providers create an opportunity to discuss family planning and contraception and most patients report receiving counseling. However, significantly fewer reported continued contraceptive use at 4–6 months postpartum. Initiation of postplacental IUD placement would be acceptable and would increase contraceptive use at 6 months postpartum.     

Racial disparities in U.S. maternal influenza vaccine uptake: Results from analysis of Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS) data, 2012–2015

Background

Pregnant women are at increased risk of hospitalization, serious complications, poor pregnancy outcomes, and mortality from influenza. Prior research suggests that there are racial/ethnic disparities in vaccination coverage and that a healthcare provider vaccination recommendation is associated with significantly higher vaccine uptake than without such a recommendation. The purpose of this study is to examine racial/ethnic disparities in healthcare providers’ recommendations for pregnant women to receive the influenza vaccine and in vaccine uptake.

Postpartum contraceptive choices among ethnically diverse women in New Mexico

Objective

The objective of the study was to determine if postpartum contraceptive choices by primiparous women differ by ethnicity.

Study design

Retrospective nested cohort study analyzing women’s characteristics and contraceptive choice.

Results

Of 652 participants, 312 (47.8%) were Hispanic, 287 (44.0%) were non-Hispanic white, and 53 (8.1%) were American Indian (AI). In multivariate analysis, depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) and intrauterine device (IUD)/implant choice was related to AI [DMPA: odds ratio (OR) 15.28, confidence interval (CI) 4.49–52.04; IUD/implant: OR 0.46, CI 0.22–0.92] and Hispanic (DMPA: OR 3.44, CI 1.12–10.58) ethnicity.

Conclusion

DMPA use was higher among Hispanic and AI women and IUD/implant use lower in AI women compared to non-Hispanic white women.     

Reproductive Health of the Rapidly Growing Hispanic Population: Data from the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System, 2002

Objectives One in five US babies are Hispanic, and many Hispanics are recent immigrants. This study’s goal is to compare reproductive health characteristics between Hispanic and non-Hispanic White (NHW) mothers and to determine whether those characteristics differ by Hispanic birth increases. Methods State-based Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System 2002 data were used to compare Hispanic and NHW mothers of live-born infants overall and in tertiles of states with the highest and lowest Hispanic birth increases during 1998–2002. We calculated crude and adjusted risk ratios (RR) for each characteristic for Hispanics (N = 5,104) relative to NHWs (N = 22,608) and conducted t-tests to compare the RRs in high and low tertile groups. Results Hispanic mothers are younger, of lower socioeconomic status, and less likely to receive early prenatal care. They smoke and drink less, breastfeed their infants more often, and report less preterm labor and hypertension during pregnancy, but may be at greater risk of gestational diabetes. When compared to states with smallest birth increases, Hispanics in states with the largest increases are more likely than NHWs to report healthy behavior, e.g., continued breastfeeding and normal BMI. However, they are more likely to report late prenatal care, hospitalization during pregnancy, and low socioeconomic status. A lower risk of hypertension is reported only by Hispanics in states with small birth increases. Conclusions Reproductive health characteristics among Hispanic and NHW women differ, but Hispanic women more closely resemble NHW women in states with small increases in Hispanic births. Percent increase in Hispanic births may be a useful measure for states planning future program needs among Hispanic women and infants. The findings and conclusions in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.     

The Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS): Methods and 1996 Response Rates from 11 States

Objectives: To determine if the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS) is a unique and valuable MCH data source and an effective mechanism for states to collect MCH data, and to assess if recent changes in it have improved efficiency and flexibility. Methods: Each component of the PRAMS methodology is described: sampling and stratification, data collection, questionnaire, and data management and weighting. To assess effectiveness, we calculated response rates, contact rates, cooperation rates, refusal rates, and questionnaire completion rates. Logistic regression was used to examine the relationship between maternal and infant characteristics and the likelihood of response. Four criteria were defined to measure improvement in PRAMS functioning. Results: Overall response rates for the 11 states in 1996 ranged from 66% to 80%. Cooperation rates were high (85–99%), with contact rates somewhat lower (73–87%). Response rates were higher for women who were older, White, married, had more education, were first-time mothers, and had a normal-birthweight infant. In all states, parity and education were the most consistent predictors of response, followed by marital status and race. Between 1988–1990 and 1996–1999, the number of states and areas participating in PRAMS increased from 6 to 23, response rates improved, and the time for a state to start data collection and to obtain a weighted dataset both decreased. Conclusions: PRAMS is a unique and valuable MCH data source. The mail/telephone methodology used in PRAMS is an effective means of reaching most women who have recently given birth in the 11 states examined; however, some population subgroups are not reached as well as others. The system has become more efficient and flexible over time and more states now participate.     

Maternal Morbidities and Postpartum Depression: An Analysis Using the 2007 and 2008 Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System

PurposePostpartum depression (PPD) is common and associated with significant health outcomes and other consequences. Identifying persons at risk may improve screening and detection of PPD. This exploratory study sought to identify the morbidities that associate with 1) PPD symptoms and 2) PPD diagnosis.MethodsData from the 2007 and 2008 Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System were analyzed from 23 states and 1 city (n = 61,733 pregnancies); 13 antenatal morbidities were included. To determine whether antenatal morbidity predictors of PPD would differ based on PPD symptoms versus a diagnosis, each of the 13 antenatal morbidities were examined in separate logistic regression models with each PPD outcome. For each objective, two samples were examined: 1) Women from all states and 2) women from Alaska and Maine, the two states that included both PPD symptoms and PPD diagnosis measures in their questionnaires. Control variables included demographic and sociodemographic variables, pregnancy variables, antenatal and postpartum health behaviors, and birth outcomes.Main FindingsHaving vaginal bleeding (odds ratio [OR], 1.42; OR, 1.76), kidney/bladder infection (OR, 1.59; OR, 1.63), nausea (OR, 1.50; OR, 1.80), preterm labor (OR, 1.54; OR, 1.51), or being on bed rest (OR, 1.34; OR, 1.56) associated with both PPD symptoms and PPD diagnosis, respectively. Being in a car accident associated with PPD symptoms only (OR, 1.65), whereas having hypertension (OR, 1.94) or a blood transfusion (OR, 2.98) was associated with PPD diagnosis only. Among women from Alaska or Maine, having preterm labor (OR, 2.54, 2.11) or nausea (OR, 2.15, 1.60) was associated with both PPD symptoms and PPD diagnosis, respectively. Having vaginal bleeding (OR, 1.65), kidney/bladder infection (OR, 1.74), a blood transfusion (OR, 3.30), or being on bed rest (OR, 1.87) was associated with PPD symptoms only, whereas having diabetes before pregnancy (OR, 5.65) was associated with PPD diagnosis only.ConclusionsThe findings of this exploratory study revealed differences in the antenatal morbidities that were associated with PPD symptoms versus diagnosis in both samples, and can assist prenatal care providers in prioritizing and screening for these morbidities that are associated with PPD during pregnancy. Additional research is warranted to confirm the results of this study in other samples and populations. Developing strategies to 1) improve general awareness of PPD and the appropriate antenatal morbidity risk factors to focus on in clinical settings, and 2) increase screening for the antenatal morbidities determined to be predictors of PPD in this study are warranted in preventing PPD.     

Postpartum Contraception Use by Urban/Rural Status: An Analysis of the Michigan Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System Data

ObjectiveWe sought to examine rural/urban differences in postpartum contraceptive use, which are underexplored in the literature.MethodsWe analyzed phase 5 (2004–2008) of the Michigan Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS) survey. Using Rural–Urban Commuting Area codes and weighted multinomial logistic regression, we examined the association between self-reported postpartum contraceptive method and rural/urban residence among postpartum women not desiring pregnancy (n = 6,468).ResultsPostpartum (mean, 16.5 weeks after delivery), 14.4% of respondents were using sterilization, 6.7% long-acting reversible contraception (LARC), 37.3% moderately effective hormonal methods, 38.4% less effective methods or no method, and 3.2% abstinence. Multivariable analysis yielded sporadic geographic patterns. Odds of method use varied significantly by age, parity, body mass index, and breastfeeding status. Not discussing contraception with a prenatal healthcare provider decreased odds of postpartum LARC use (odds ratio, 0.52; 95% CI, 0.36–0.75). Number of prenatal visits and weeks since delivery were not associated with postpartum contraception method.ConclusionsWe did not observe strong variation in postpartum contraceptive use based on geography. Low uptake of highly effective contraception across rural and urban areas suggests a need for education and outreach regarding these methods.     

Community-oriented medical education: comparison of tracks in Mexico and New Mexico

Most major innovations in medical education have occurred in a small number of new schools. Attempts to create change in traditional schools are far more complex. Relevant models for such change are few and there is an urgent need for institutions pioneering such changes to learn from each other's experiences. Two conventional medical schools described in this paper have attempted to create community-oriented institutional change by establishing experimental undergraduate curricular tracks. One is in a developing country, Mexico, the other in a technically developed country, the United States. These new tracks in medical education evolved independently of one another, yet they have many similarities and have experienced common problems. A formal exchange between the two schools has led to new insights in medical education and improvements to both programmes. Exchange agreements like the one reported here would be valuable for other medical schools in both developing and technically developed countries.     

产后服务对象避孕节育现状与需求相关调查研究

目的:了解服务对象产后避孕知识、产后访视、避孕节育状况与服务需求,为完善社区产妇健康管理及产后避孕服务模式提供科学的理论依据。方法:2013年10月1日~11月10日,对在天津医科大学总医院以及天津永久医院住院分娩的575名产后服务对象进行问卷调查,分别于产后42±7d、90±7d、180±7d进行电话随访。结果:(1)服务对象产后避孕相关知识总正确率为26.8%,其中有关宫内节育器(IUD)、单纯孕激素避孕法(POC)、复方口服避孕药(COC)、哺乳闭经避孕法(LAM)的正确率,分别是31.1%、18.6%、23.7%、44.9%。(2)服务对象产后3~7天访视率为94.0%,产后42d检查率为89.0%,其差异有统计学意义(P0.05)。两次访视中进行产后避孕宣教与指导的分别有50.7%和78.3%。(3)服务对象喜欢的避孕宣教形式为发放宣传手册资料(64.6%)、向医生护士咨询(17.4%)、热线电话(13.4%)。认为产后避孕宣教的最佳时间为产后42d健康检查(51.3%)、产后3~7d访视时(29.9%)。(4)服务对象母乳喂养率为86.5%,纯母乳喂养坚持到产后6个月的有40.0%。(5)服务对象性生活的恢复和开始使用避孕措施的平均时间为产后81.7±35.0d、产后98.4±39.1d,其中产后未避孕及未即时避孕的有27.3%。(6)服务对象选择的避孕方法前4位是男用避用套、体外排精、IUD、安全期,分别占83.2%、1.8%、1.8%、1.6%。至产后6个月依赖LAM避孕有20.8%。结论:服务对象产后访视率较好,访视内容不完善。服务对象避孕措施的平均落实时间滞后于性生活的恢复时间。服务对象产后避孕知识匮乏,在产后访视中有关避孕的宣教和指导不足。服务提供者可以通过发放宣传手册资料、鼓励服务对象向医生护士咨询、相关科室建立产后避孕热线电话等途径开展产后避孕的宣教和指导。将产后避孕的宣教和指导的时间着重放在产后42d健康检查、产后3~7d访视时。     

Pregnancy Intention and Post-partum Depressive Affect in Louisiana Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System

Background Postpartum depression is associated with negative physical and mental health outcomes for both the mother and infant. This study examines the relationship between a mother and/or her partner’s pregnancy intentions and reported post-partum depressive symptoms (PPDs). Methods Using Louisiana pregnancy risk assessment monitoring system, 2000–2003, a secondary cross-sectional analysis was conducted on 5549 mothers, stratified by race, who delivered a singleton, live birth and whose infant was still alive at the time of the survey. Bivariate and multivariable logistic regressions were conducted, taking into account the complex survey design. Results In multivariable models, unwanted pregnancies were associated with severe PPDs (aOR 1.76, 95 % CI 1.23–2.53). Furthermore, the association between husbands/partners’ who did not want or care about the pregnancy and mild PPDs remained for White women (aOR 1.32, 95 % CI 1.02–1.69); while among Black women, neither parent’s pregnancy intention were associated with mild or severe PPDs. Conclusions This study supports existing research demonstrating the association between pregnancy intention and PPDs. This study contributes to the limited information on the role that partner pregnancy intention plays on maternal mental health outcomes, however further discussion is needed on the impact of this role across races. Findings can be used in programs aiming to reduce adverse mental health outcomes among high-risk mothers.     

Correlates of Pre-Pregnancy Physical Inactivity: Results from the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System

Objectives Evaluate the prevalence of physical inactivity (no physical activity or exercise for 30 min or more at least one day per week) in the 3 months prior to pregnancy in a population-based sample of women and identify individual socio-demographic, personal, health, and behavioral factors predictive of pre-pregnancy physical inactivity. Methods In this cross-sectional study, we used data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System to assess the prevalence of self-reported pre-pregnancy physical activity among 4,069 women who delivered a live birth in 2004 in Maine, North Carolina, or Washington State. We developed a predictive model by using a backward selection approach to building logistic regression models to identify independent predictors of physical inactivity in the 3 months prior to pregnancy among those women who did not meet national recommendations for physical activity (activity more than 5 days per week). Results Overall, the prevalence of pre-pregnancy physical inactivity was 39.2%. Predictors of physical inactivity prior to pregnancy included higher or lower than normal pre-pregnancy body mass index, lower maternal education level, and a history of previous live births. Women with 12 years of education were particularly likely to be inactive prior to pregnancy (prevalence odds ratio 1.81, 95% confidence interval 1.42, 2.32; compared to women with more than 12 years of education). Conclusions Physical inactivity is common among women prior to pregnancy. Information on factors predictive of physical inactivity can be used in the development of clinical activities and public health interventions that aim to reduce the level of physical inactivity among women of reproductive age.     

Challenges Faced by New Mothers in the Early Postpartum Period: An Analysis of Comment Data from the 2000 Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS) Survey

Objective To identify challenges that women face 2–9 months postpartum using qualitative data gathered by the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS). Methods PRAMS is an on-going population-based surveillance system that collects self-reported information on maternal behaviors and experiences before, during, and after the birth of a live infant. We analyzed free text comment data from women in 10 states who answered the PRAMS survey in 2000. Preliminary analysis included a review of the comment data to identify major themes and a demographic comparison of women who commented (n = 3,417) versus women who did not (n = 12,497). Subsequent analysis included systematic coding of the data from 324 women that commented about postpartum concerns and evaluation to ensure acceptable levels of reliability among coders. Results We identified the following major themes, listed in order of frequency: (1) need for social support, (2) breastfeeding issues, (3) lack of education about newborn care after discharge, (4) need for help with postpartum depression, (5) perceived need for extended postpartum hospital stay, and (6) need for maternal insurance coverage beyond delivery. Conclusion The themes identified indicate that new mothers want more social support and education and that some of their concerns relate to policies regarding breastfeeding and medical care. These results can be used to inform programs and policies designed to address education and continuity of postpartum care for new mothers.     

广州市海珠区江海街流动人口产后避孕服务需求调查分析

目的了解流动人口避孕节育需求并探讨其影响因素,为进一步开展有针对性的干预措施提供依据。方法用问卷调查的方法,了解流动人口孕产妇避孕服务的需求以及对避孕知识的知晓程度。结果流动人口对避孕知识的知晓程度为57.96%～91.59%,不同文化程度、经济水平对产后避孕知识的知晓程度有差异。流动人口孕产妇对避孕方法的选择和使用等知识具有迫切的需求。42.0%认为产前检查为最合适的宣教时间,发放宣传册为最喜欢的宣教方式。结论针对不同需求,利用不同的平台,开展有针对性的避孕知识宣教,有利于提高流动人口对避孕节育知识的掌握。     

卡孕栓预防高危妊娠剖宫产产后出血临床观察

目的观察卡孕栓预防高危妊娠剖宫产产后出血的效果。方法将153例高危妊娠剖宫产产妇分为3组,分别为舌下含服卡孕栓组、舌下含服米索前列醇组和静脉滴注缩宫素组,均于胎儿娩出后立即用药,比较剖宫产术中、术后2 h及术后2~24 h出血量。结果卡孕栓组术中及术后2 h出血量均明显少于和缩宫素组,产后出血发生明显减少(P<0.05),与米索前列醇组比较,术中出血量明显减少(P<0.05),术后2 h出血量无显著性差异(P>0.05)。用药前后产妇血压无显著变化,副反应少,术后肛门恢复排气时间缩短。结论卡孕栓舌下含服能明显减少高危妊娠剖宫产产后出血量,且应用简单、安全可靠,值得推广。     

Maternal-Infant Bedsharing: Risk Factors for Bedsharing in a Population-Based Survey of New Mothers and Implications for SIDS Risk Reduction

Objectives: Maternal-infant bedsharing is a common but controversial practice. Little has been published about who bedshares in the United States. This information would be useful to inform public policy, to guide clinical practice and to help focus research. The objective was to explore the prevalence and determinants of bedsharing in Oregon. Methods. Oregon Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS) surveys a population-based random sample of women after a live birth. Women were asked if they shared a bed with their infant “always,” “almost always,” “sometimes” or “never.” Results: 1867 women completed the survey in 1998–99 (73.5% weighted response rate). Of the respondents, 20.5% reported bedsharing always, 14.7% almost always, 41.4% sometimes, and 23.4% never. In multivariable logistic regression, Hispanics (adjusted odds ratio [ORa] 1.69, 95% Confidence Interval [CI] 1.17–2.43), blacks (ORa 3.11, 95% CI 2.03–4.76) and Asians/Pacific Islanders (ORa 2.14, 95% CI 1.51–3.03), women who breastfed more than 4 weeks (ORa 2.65, 95% CI 1.72–4.08), had annual family incomes less than $30,000 (ORa 2.44, 95% CI 1.44–4.15), or were single (ORa 1.55, 95% CI 1.03–2.35) were more likely to bedshare frequently (always or almost always). Among Hispanic and black women, bedsharing did not vary significantly by income level. Bedsharing black, American Indian/Alaska Native and white infants were much more likely to be exposed to smoking mothers than Hispanic or Asian/Pacific Islander infants (p < .0001). Conclusions: Bedsharing is common in Oregon. The women most likely to bedshare are non-white, single, breastfeeding and low-income. Non-economic factors are also important, particularly among blacks and Hispanics. Campaigns to decrease bedsharing by providing cribs may have limited effectiveness if mothers are bedsharing because of cultural norms.