Muscle spindles in the velopharyngeal musculature of humans

Seven muscles in the velopharyngeal region of humans were studied histologically to determine the presence of muscle spindles. Typical spindles were found in palatoglossus and tensor veli palatini with a greater number in the latter. Spindles were not found in levator veli palatini, palatopharyngeus, musculus uvulae, salpingopharyngeus, or the superior pharyngeal constrictor.     

Minuscule submucous cleft palate. Cadaver study.

Otitis media is almost universal in cleft palate patients, at least during infancy. A lesser cleft manifestation, the occult submucous cleft palate, is identifiable in living patients by surgical dissection or flexible fiberoptic nasopharyngoscopy. We addressed the hypothesis that an even more subtle form of submucous cleft palate, involving both an abnormal musculus levator veli palatini and an abnormal musculus uvulae, is associated with otitis media. We studied 35 adult human cadaver specimens for histologic and infrared photographic transillumination evidence of what we have identified as the minuscule submucous cleft palate. None of the specimens had evidence of clinical otitis media, or clinical abnormality of the palate. Approximately one fifth of the specimens had evidence of minuscule submucous cleft palate: minimal bulk of the musculus uvulae and haphazard organization of the fibers of the musculus levator veli palatini. These data support the nasopharyngoscopic inference that in occult submucous cleft palate, there is both hypoplasia of the musculus uvulae and abnormal orientation of the fibers of the musculus levator veli palatini. Although not significant statistically, a trend was suggested for minuscule submucous cleft palate to be associated with indicators of prior otitis media.     

Limited palatal muscle resection with tonsillectomy: A novel palatopharyngoplasty technique for obstructive sleep apnea

Objective

The ideal palatal surgery for obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) and snoring must maintain the airway patency and correct anatomic abnormalities without complications. The purpose of this study was to investigate the efficacy of limited palatal muscle resection (LPMR) to improve OSA severity.

Subjects and methods

Twenty-three patients with OSA underwent LPMR. The LPMR was initiated with a bilateral tonsillectomy in patients with tonsil size 2 and 3. The LPMR consisted of partial resection of palatal muscles (levator veli palatini, palatoglossus, and musculus uvulae) with preservation of the uvula and a simple double layer suturing. The retropalatal space and the length of soft palate were evaluated by magnetic resonance imaging. Subjective outcomes using visual analog scales, Epworth Sleepiness Scale, and overnight polysomnography (PSG) data were assessed.

Results

Six months after the operation, there was significant symptomatic improvement in snoring, morning headaches, tiredness, and daytime sleepiness. Postoperative magnetic resonance images showed upward and forward movement of uvula and soft palate after LPMR. The length of the soft palate was significantly shortened and the retropalatal space was significantly increased. Postoperative PSG revealed significant improvement in apnea–hypopnea index (AHI) and the total sleep time spent with oxygen saturation below 90%, and reduction in AHI following PMR was found in all patients. Furthermore, no patient experienced velopharyngeal insufficiency, voice changes, and pharyngeal dryness at 6 months follow-up.

Conclusions

The LPMR obtained significant improvement in subjective and objective outcomes in OSA, with preserved pharyngeal function. PMR is an effective and safe technique to treat oropharyngeal obstruction in OSA surgery.     

Histopathologic changes of the soft palate after laser-assisted uvulopalatoplasty.

OBJECTIVE: To assess late histopathologic changes of the soft palate after laser-assisted uvulopalatoplasty in patients with snoring and mild obstructive sleep apnea. DESIGN: A nonrandomized, histopathologic controlled study. SUBJECTS AND INTERVENTIONS: Palatal surgical specimens were removed from 10 patients with snoring and obstructive sleep apnea in whom laser-assisted uvulopalatoplasty was not successful and who subsequently underwent uvulopalatopharyngoplasty. The mean interval between the last laser treatment and uvulopalatopharyngoplasty was 24 months. The patients' specimens were compared with those of a control group consisting of 12 palates and uvulae excised during uvulopalatopharyngoplasty. RESULTS: After laser-assisted uvulopalatoplasty, all soft palates displayed marked and progressive pathologic changes that increased with every additional treatment and extended far beyond the point of laser beam application. The loose connective tissue present in the lamina propria was replaced by diffuse fibrosis, which also extended to the central layer, on the expanse of seromucous glands and muscle fibers. Other changes included ulceration of the oral epithelium and a patchy inflammatory reaction. CONCLUSIONS: Extensive thermal-induced changes, involving the 3 layers of the organ, were found. They are compatible with clinical observations reported elsewhere and are probably responsible for the worsening of the obstructive sleep apnea status and the sensation of the pharyngeal dryness that developed months after the laser-assisted uvulopalatoplasty. Although it has immediate benefits, the procedure is still relatively new and all its implications are as yet unknown.     

Partial Adenoidectomy

Adenoidectomy in the presence of an inadequate palate may result in velopharyngeal insufficiency. When an adenoidectomy is indicated in a child whose palate is not fully adequate, a partial adenoidectomy may be considered. Partial adenoidectomy involves removing the upper part of the adenoid for relief of nasal obstruction while leaving the lower portion of the adenoid intact to ensure velopharyngeal competence. Fifty-eight children underwent partial adenoidectomy over a 4-year period; 55 of these children had preoperative nasal obstruction; 49 had a tonsillectomy done at the same time; and 2 had had a previous T&A. The rationale for retaining the lower portion of the adenoid includes a short soft palate, decreased palatal mobility, a mildsubmucous cleft palate, huge tonsils pushing the palate anteriorly, and a short hard palate. The relief of nasal obstruction was excellent. There were no primary postoperative hemorrhages, and none of the 58 children developed velopharyngeal insufficiency following partial adenoidectomy.     

Mucosal-strip/uvulectomy by the CO2 laser as a method of treating simple snoring

The effect of stiffening the soft palate by inducing scarring after removing a central strip of mucosa with a CO₂ laser was investigated in 25 heavy snorers. The results were assessed using a series of Visual Analogue Score (VAS) assessment questionnaires completed by the partner over a period of 6 months. Of the 22 patients who had the laser-strip and uvulectomy, snoring improved in 18 (82%) (median improvement of 75% at 3 months). Four patients did not improve. Between 3 and 6 months, snoring increased in one patient and decreased in four (< 10% change on VAS). Snoring did not improve in the three patients who did not undergo uvulectomy. We conclude that the laser-strip/uvulectomy can reduce snoring to a tolerable level in eight out of 10 heavy snorers, but the procedure is painful for several days.     

Surgical management of the hypodynamic palate.

The most successful surgical correction of velopharyngeal insufficiency (VPI) has been achieved in those patients in whom residual dynamic function of the soft palate/nasopharyngeal sphincter mechanism exists. In spite of the obvious need for rehabilitation, surgical reconstruction has often been advised against in those cases where the palate was hypodynamic or adynamic. We have developed a surgical procedure for these patients by utilizing a modification of Hogan's lateral port control pharyngeal flap method. We present the surgical considerations along with the initial application and results in four patients with hypodynamic palates of differing origins. We think that this technique extends surgical correction of VPI to the previously neglected group of patients in whom this condition is the result of a hypodynamic palate.     

Surgical management of recurrent nasopharyngeal carcinoma after radiation failure at the primary site

Nine patients have undergone transpalatal resection of recurrent nasopharynx cancer 10 to 56 months following a full course of external beam irradiation. Seven patients were treated for cure, and two were treated palliatively because of nasal airway obstruction, recurrent epistaxis, and severe headaches. Of the patients treated for cure, five are living free of disease 6 to 48 months (mean, 22.2 months) after their surgery. Disease recurred in two patients at 5 and 7 months. Both underwent secondary procedures and are alive with disease at 25 months and 11 months, respectively. The mean hospital stay was 8.7 days (range, 2 to 30 days) for all patients. The average time to swallowing was 2 days (range, 1 to 3 days). Six patients required resection of their soft palate and a soft palate obturator; two patients had intact functioning soft palates without velopharyngeal insufficiency. Of the two patients treated for palliation, one patient died 1 year postoperatively and, although she received some benefit from the resection (diminished headaches), in retrospect, surgery was not worthwhile. The second patient is alive 3 years following her resection and remained symptom-free for 2 years.     

Functional outcomes following palatal reconstruction with a folded radial forearm free flap

Defects of the soft palate often occur after extirpative procedures are performed to treat oropharyngeal cancers. These defects usually result in velopharyngeal insufficiency and an alteration in speech and deglutition. Palatal prostheses have been used to circumvent this problem in the past. Recently, however, folded radial forearmfreeflaps have been introduced for reconstruction of the soft palate to eliminate velopharyngeal insufficiency and the need for a prosthesis. We conducted a study to evaluate pharyngeal and palatal functions following reconstruction of soft-palate defects with radial forearm free flaps in 16 patients who had undergone resection of the soft palate for squamous cell carcinoma. Nine patients had partial soft-palate defects and 7 had total defects. All patients had lateral pharyngeal-wall defects. In addition, 14 patients had defects of the base of the tongue. Patients were followed for 3 to 40 months. Outcome measures were determined according to several parameters, including postoperative complications, resumption of diet, intelligibility of speech, and decannulation. All patients were evaluated by a speech pathologist and an otolaryngologist with a bedside swallowing evaluation and flexible nasopharyngoscopy. Twelve patients underwent videofluoroscopic studies. There was no incidence of flap failure. One patient developed a transient salivary fistula, which resolved with conservative management. Four patients without dysphagia resumed oral intake 2 weeks after surgery. The 12 patients with dysphagia underwent swallowing therapy. Ten of them responded and were able to resume oral intake, while the other 2 required a palatal prosthesis. Overall, 10 patients resumed a normal diet and 4 tolerated a soft diet within 6 weeks. The 2 patients who required a palatal prosthesis were able to take purees. All patients were decannulated, and all were able to speak intelligibly. Speech was hypernasal in 2 patients and hyponasal in 3. We conclude that the folded radial forearm free flap procedure is a useful alternative for reconstruction of palatal and pharyngeal defects. It is safe and effective, and it results in excellent functional outcomes.     

Velopharyngeal and choanal stenosis after radiotherapy for nasopharyngeal carcinoma

Choanal stenosis is a well recognized late complication of radiotherapy for nasopharyngeal carcinoma. However velopharyngeal stenosis post radiotherapy for nasopharyngeal carcinoma is rare. We present here a case of bilateral choanal stenosis and velopharyngeal stenosis in a patient treated with radiotherapy for nasopharyngeal carcinoma. A 58-year-old woman presented to our otolaryngology clinic with a one year history of nasal obstruction. She was diagnosed to have nasopharyngeal carcinoma 12 years ago for which she received radiotherapy. Clinical examination revealed bilateral choanal stenosis and velopharyngeal stenosis. Treatment of choanal stenosis and velopharyngeal stenosis is challenging due to high incidence of recurrence and patients frequently require multiple procedures. The patient underwent a transnasal endoscopic excision of velopharyngeal scar tissue and widening of posterior choana using Surgitron^®, mitomycin-C applied topically to the surgical wound and bilateral stenting under general anesthesia. The stents were kept for two weeks, and 3 years post operation velopharyngeal aperture and posterior choana remained patent. As illustrated in this case velopharyngeal stenosis can occur after radiotheraphy and should not be overlooked. Combine modality of transnasal endoscopic excision of velopharyngeal scar tissue, widening of choanal stenosis with Surgitron^® followed by the application of mitomycin-C and stenting has been shown to be an effective option.     

单侧完全性腭裂修复术后语音功能恢复观察

目的：探讨不同手术时机功能性腭裂修复术对后语音功能恢复的影响。方法：对60例单侧完全性腭裂患者按不同年龄段分为A、B两组，在常规封闭裂隙的同时将软腭异常附丽的须肉作解剖复位，重建肌性环吊带，恢复软腭功能，术后1个月开始为期半年的语音治疗。结果：A、B两组术后语音恢复评估经统计学处理，有显著性差异（P＜0．05），即早期接受手术者语音功能好，结论：腭裂患者应尽早实施功能性修复手术，术后配合语音训练，可取得良好的语音效果。     

Transoral carbon dioxide laser ablation for cancer, tumors, and other diseases

A carbon dioxide laser was used on 71 patients for the removal of oral cavity or oropharyngeal cancers, premalignant lesions, benign tumors, or elongated soft palates. Evaluation of patient morbidity, speech, and swallowing, as well as survival data, suggests that the use of this modality for treatment of these conditions is highly successful, with excellent preservation of oral and pharyngeal function and minimal patient morbidity. Deep excisions of tumors that could lead to restricted motion of the tongue and/or jaw tended to have an adverse effect on both speech and swallowing. Immediate reconstruction should be considered, especially for defects created by excision of large tumors in the anterior oral cavity or in the lateral oropharyngeal wall cancers. Multimodality cancer therapy should be considered for large oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancers that have been treated by carbon dioxide laser excision.     

Histological changes of rat soft palate with exposure to experimental laryngopharyngeal reflux

Objective

The possible effects of laryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR) on laryngeal and otologic disorders have been studied in the literature. There have been no reports explaining the possible effects of LPR on the soft palate. Therefore, in this study, we investigated the histopathologic changes in the rat soft palate using an experimental model of reflux.

Subjects and methods

Eighteen healthy 200–220-g 20-week-old Sprague-Dawley rats were used. The animals were divided into three groups according to exposure time (1, 4, and 12 week exposures), and four rats were examined as controls who had undergone sham operation. An experimental model of gastroesophageal reflux was induced under general anesthesia. After exposure, the animals were sacrificed, and their soft palates were removed. The histopathological changes in the soft palates were observed under a light microscope.

Results

Submucous gland hyperplasia, inflamation, subepithelial edema, vascular engorgement, muscular atrophy and dilated glandular excretory duct were compared among the groups. Submucous gland hyperplasia, subepithelial edema, inflammation, vascular engorgement, muscular atrophy and dilated glandular excretory duct were significantly different in the exposure groups compared with the control group.

Conclusion

On the basis of histopathological evaluations, our findings suggest that reflux affects the soft palate, which suggests that these pathological changes may reflect the relationship between LPR and airway obstruction.     

Palatopharyngeal sling: a new technique in treatment of velopharyngeal insufficiency

OBJECTIVE: (a) Pharyngeal flap and sphincter pharyngoplasty are the procedures most frequently chosen by craniofacial surgeons for surgical management of velopharyngeal insufficiency. Both operations may be complicated by obstructive breathing and even sleep apnea. (b) The purpose of this study is to evaluate the efficacy of a palatopharyngeal sling in the treatment of velopharyngeal insufficiency in cases with weak palatal mobility and its effect on breathing. METHODS: Seventeen cases of post-palatoplasty velopharyngeal insufficiency were subjected to treatment by palatopharyngeal sling. This sling, created by elevation of bilateral myomucosal flaps formed of palatopharyngeus and superior constrictor muscles, passed through palatal split, sutured together and to a raw area on the oral surface of the soft palate. Pre- and post-operative evaluation was carried out by perceptual speech analysis and flexible nasopharyngoscopy. Polysomnography was used to assess the effect of the operation on breathing. RESULTS: Complete closure was achieved in 13 cases (76.5%) while 4 cases showed incomplete closure (2 of them showed improvement when compared with the pre-operative video). The overall improvement of speech and velopharyngeal closure was 88.2%. Polysomnography showed no obstructive breathing. CONCLUSIONS: Palatopharyngeal sling is a useful technique for correction of velopharyngeal insufficiency in cases with little palatal motion and it carries no risk of obstructive sleep apnea.     

Velopharyngeal function after microsurgical reconstruction of lateral and superior oropharyngeal defects

OBJECTIVES/HYPOTHESIS: Defects of the lateral and superior oropharyngeal wall are difficult to reconstruct because of their complicated anatomy and the possibility of causing velopharyngeal incompetence. The objective was to investigate problems of reconstruction and postoperative velopharyngeal function. STUDY DESIGN: Defects were classified into three types (I, II, and III) according to their extent. Four operative procedures were performed: the Patch, Jump, Denude, and Gehanno methods, which include a lateral-posterior pharyngeal advancement flap. Speech intelligibility, velopharyngeal function, and wound dehiscence between the flap and the remaining soft palate were evaluated. METHODS: Forty patients who had undergone resection of the lateral and superior oropharyngeal walls and subsequent reconstruction were reviewed. RESULTS: Most patients with type I or II defects had satisfactory velopharyngeal function. However, in patients with type III defects, speech function was worse and severe velopharyngeal incompetence was more common. The type of defect and the presence of wound dehiscence were related to postoperative function. The rates of wound dehiscence were lower with the Patch and Gehanno methods. CONCLUSIONS: Postoperative function in patients with type III defects can be affected by various factors. We suggest that the Gehanno method be the treatment of choice for reconstruction of extensive defects of the oropharynx. However, patients in whom more than two-thirds of the superior and posterior oropharyngeal walls has been resected are poor candidates for reconstruction because of the difficulty of maintaining both nasal airway patency and velopharyngeal function.     

上气道CT软组织测量值与阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合征病情程度的关系

目的 探讨上气道形态学指标尤其是气道壁软组织体积与阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合征(OSAHS)患者病情严重程度的关系.方法 经多道睡眠图监测确诊的82例OSAHS患者行平静呼吸时的上气道CT扫描,并行三维重建,测量上气道不同部位的左右径、截面积,尤其是气道腔内容积、气道壁软组织体积等指标,并进行各测量值与呼吸暂停低通气指数(AHI)、最低动脉血氧饱和度(lowest arterial oxygen saturation,LSaO2)的相关性分析.结果 各研究平面的左右径、面积与AHI的大小均呈负相关,与LSaO2呈正相关,尤其是AHI与整个气道的最小左右径相关性更明显(r=-0.558,P<0.01).AHI与鼻腔骨性容积、鼻咽腔内容积、腭咽气道腔内容积、腭咽气道腔内容积占腭咽骨性框架包绕容积的比值、整个气道腔内容积占整个气道骨性框架包绕容积的比值均呈不同程度的负相关(P值<0.05或<0.01),同时与腭咽气道壁软组织体积、腭咽气道壁软组织体积占腭咽骨性框架内包绕容积的比值、整个气道壁软组织体积占整个气道骨性框架包绕容积的比值,腭咽气道壁软组织体积与腭咽腔内容积的比值、整个气道壁软组织体积与整个气道腔内容积的比值均呈正相关(P值<0.05或<0.01).结论 OSAHS患者上气道CT测量二维指标与三维指标均可对OSAHS病情严重程度的预测提供一定的参考信息.气道的左右径、面积及气道腔内容积、气道壁软组织体积,尤其是腭咽区气道腔内容积及气道壁软组织体积,对病情的判别均有意义.     

Nasopharyngeal pushback in treatment of velopharyngeal insufficiency.

We describe a new technique for extensive retropositioning of the soft palate for the treatment of velopharyngeal insufficiency. This technique is identified as a nasopharyngeal pushback, and has been used repeatedly in conjunction with both a Cronin nasal flap and a superiorly based pharyngeal flap when maximum retropositioning was needed. This procedure has been used for over ten years, each time obtaining an additional pushback distance equal to or greater than the distance achieved by freeling the soft palate from the posterior border of the hard palate.     

Craniofacial characteristics and velopharyngeal function in cleft lip/palate children with and without adenoidectomy

The association between velopharyngeal function, craniofacial morphology and adenoidectomy was investigated using 27 craniofacial and nasopharyngeal variables taken from lateral cephalograms. The sample consisted of 96 boys with cleft palates with or without cleft lips. They were examined at 6 years of age when cephalograms were obtained and perceptual speech assessments were performed. The subjects were divided into three groups: (1) velopharyngeal competence (VPC, n = 45); (2) mild incompetence not requiring velopharyngoplasty (VPI, n = 36); and (3) previous incompetence operated on with velopharyngoplasty ad modum Hoenig (VPP, n = 15) before the 6-year examination. The groups were further divided into two subgroups according to previous adenoidectomy (Ad+, Ad–). The cranial base, size and interrelationship of the maxilla and mandible and their relationship to the cranial base or the bony nasopharynx did not differ among the VPC, VPI and VPP groups. The sagittal depth of the nasopharyngeal airway (Pm-ad1, Pm-ad2, Pm-ad3) was significantly wider in the VPP group than in the the VPC and VPI groups. The previous adenoidectomy decreased the thickness of the posterior pharyngeal wall (ad1-Ba, ad2-so) and thus increased airway size. The length of the velum did not differ between the three groups or their subgroups with and without adenoidectomy. The results showed that adenoidectomy is a risk to velopharyngeal function by widening the nasal airway, but velopharyngeal incompetence cannot definitely be attributed to adenoidectomy. Received: 3 July 2001 / Accepted: 28 August 2001