影像导航行椎弓根钉加椎间钛笼融合治疗腰椎滑脱

目的探讨脊柱影像导航系统引导椎弓根钉加椎间钛笼融合在腰椎滑脱症手术治疗中的临床意义。方法对80例腰椎滑脱患者在脊柱影像导航系统引导下利用椎弓根螺钉对滑脱椎体进行复位固定加椎管减压、椎间融合术。手术后对内植物和导航虚拟影像进行测量,疗效采用JOA下腰痛评分标准评定术前、术后分数,同时观察临床疗效及融合率。结果植入物实际影像图与导航虚拟手术路径图重叠,复查CT示内植物位置理想,椎弓根钉位置理想336枚（93％）。术后随访6-34个月,术前JOA评分平均7分,随访时为12.5分,优良率90％。结论影像导航系统引导椎弓根钉加椎间钛笼融合治疗腰椎滑脱症,植入前可以虚拟出内固定植入的手术环境和路径;植入中可以适时追踪手术器械的位置变化,使内植物精确植入最佳位置,提高了椎弓根钉和融合器植入的安全性,提高手术疗效。     

导航辅助脊柱胸腰段椎弓根钉植入的临床应用

目的探讨临床运用计算机影像导航技术引导脊柱胸腰段椎弓根钉植入的准确性。方法2003年5月-2007年5月，29例患者接受116枚计算机影像导航技术引导脊柱胸腰段椎弓根钉植入手术治疗，T10-T1250枚胸椎弓根钉，L1-L3 66枚腰椎弓根钉。术中记录椎弓根钉植入所需时间及C-臂透视工作次数，椎弓根钉植入完成后，即行C-臂正侧位摄片并与导航路径进行比较测量。术后CT进行椎弓根层面扫描，根据椎弓根钉与椎弓根皮质问关系分为四级：A=在椎弓根内；B=突破皮质，〈2mm；C=突破皮质，2-4mm；C=突破皮质，〉4mm。结果术后CT椎弓根位置扫描显示：A级101枚（87．07％）；B级10枚（8．62％）；C级2枚（1．72％）；D级3枚（2．59％）。1枚椎弓根钉植入平均所需时间：2．73±0．64min（1．15～4．02min）。下胸椎9枚（7．75％）胸椎弓根钉突破皮质，上腰椎6枚（5．17％）腰椎弓根钉突破皮质，且临床观察未发现与椎弓根钉突破皮质相关的神经血管等并发症。植入的椎弓根钉C-臂正侧位摄片与导航路径吻合比较，进钉点均差2．6mm（最大3．1mm），角度均差3．3°（最大5．4°）。结论计算机影像导航辅助脊柱胸腰段椎弓根钉植入，提供二维、多平面实时显示，保证了脊柱胸腰段椎弓根钉植入的准确性及安全性，明显减少放射线的暴露强度。     

经伤椎椎弓根植骨植钉结合短节段椎弓根内固定治疗胸腰椎爆裂性骨折39例围术期护理

目的:探讨经伤椎椎弓根植骨椎体成形并植钉,结合短节段椎弓根内固定治疗胸腰椎爆裂性骨折围手术期的护理方法.方法:采用后路减压,经伤椎椎弓根填充自体骨颗粒,伤椎植入椎弓根钉,结合上下相邻椎体椎弓根钉内固定治疗胸腰椎爆裂性骨折39例.结果:术后患者临床症状有所改善,椎体高度恢复好,内固定无松动、断裂.结论经椎弓根椎体内植骨和伤椎椎弓根钉分散内固定的两者联合应用可降低后期内固定松动、断裂及矫正度丢失的发生率.围术期相关护理及健康教育能够保证该项技术的顺利实施.     

影像导航椎体成形术治疗胸腰段椎体爆裂骨折

目的探讨骨科手术导航系统引导椎体成形术辅助短节段椎弓钉内固定治疗胸腰段椎体爆裂骨折应用的有效性和效果。方法对18例胸腰段椎体爆裂骨折采用导航引导下的短节段椎弓钉固定结合钙磷骨水泥灌注椎体成形术,内植完成后即做X线片正侧位摄片与导航路径进行吻合测量。结果本组患者术后内植物位置理想,椎弓钉位置评级理想68枚(94%),3枚突破椎弓根外侧皮质(4%),II级1枚。术后1周离床负重行走。椎体高度丢失恢复40%,随访12个月后显示椎体高度平均改变0.15%,过伸过屈动力摄片显示固定段无异常活动,未发现有椎弓钉松动、断裂病例。结论导航引导椎弓钉植入及钙磷骨水泥灌注椎体成形术,只需1次X线片成像就能做出虚拟的手术环境和路径;使内植物精确植入最佳位置,提高了椎弓钉植入及椎体成形手术的安全性,提高手术疗效。     

影像导航引导椎体成形术在治疗胸腰段椎体爆裂骨折中的应用

目的 探讨影像导航系统引导椎体成形术辅助短节段椎弓钉内固定在治疗胸腰段椎体爆裂骨折中的有效性和效果.方法 对28例胸腰段椎体爆裂骨折采用导航引导下的短节段椎弓钉固定结合钙磷骨水泥灌注椎体成形术,内植完成后即行X线片正侧位摄片与导航路径进行吻合测量.结果 本组患者术后内植物位置理想,椎弓钉位置评级:理想106枚(94.5%),6枚突破椎弓根外侧皮质(5%),Ⅱ级2枚.术后1周离床负重行走.椎体高度丢失恢复40%,随访12个月后显示椎体高度平均改变0.2%,过伸过屈动力摄片显示固定段无异常活动,未发现有椎弓钉松动、断裂病例.结论 导航引导椎弓钉植入及钙磷骨水泥灌注椎体成形术,只需1次X线片成像就能做出虚拟的手术环境和路径;使内植物精确植入最佳位置,提高了椎弓钉植入及椎体成形手术的安全性,提高手术疗效.     

改良二维X线导航模拟椎体三维影像引导胸腰段椎弓根钉内固定的临床应用

目的探讨改良二维X线导航模拟椎体三维影像的方式在引导胸腰段椎弓根钉内固定的应用效果。方法对66例胸腰段骨折和腰椎疾病患者行后路椎弓根钉固定撑开复位手术,采用改良二维导航的方法获取手术椎节的正侧位及斜位片,虚拟成椎体的正侧位及椎弓根轴位片,引导椎弓根钉植入术。结果术中共植入280枚椎弓根钉,导航虚拟路径与实际椎弓根钉影像之间的平均位置差为1.5mm,角度平均偏差1.0°。术后CT显示,全部椎弓根钉均位于椎弓根内,未出现涉及或突破皮质的现象;椎弓根钉与椎体纵轴角度平均偏差2.0°。结论采用改良二维X线导航模拟椎体三维影像的方法引导胸腰段椎弓根内固定,提高了置钉的准确性和安全性,简便可行,临床效果显著。     

个体化导航模板辅助腰椎椎弓根螺钉置钉准确性实验研究

目的:探讨个体化导航模板辅助腰椎椎弓根螺钉置入的准确性.方法:根据10具尸体腰椎(L1～L4)标本术前CT资料,利用逆向工程原理及快速成型技术设计制造出个体化导航模板,在尸体标本上进行个体化导航模板辅助腰椎椎弓根螺钉的置入手术,术后行CT断层扫描评价螺钉在椎弓根及椎体内的位置.结果:共应用40个个体化导航模板,辅助置入腰椎椎弓根螺钉80枚.CT扫描发现所有螺钉进钉点准确,进钉方向适当:全部螺钉均准确置入相应椎弓根及椎体内,无穿破椎弓根皮质及椎体前方的螺钉.结论:个体化导航模板辅助腰椎椎弓根螺钉置钉准确性高,操作简单,为腰椎椎弓根螺钉的准确置入提供了一种新的可供选择的方法.     

CT导航寰枢椎后路椎弓根钉置入安全性的初步评估

目的评价CT导航在寰枢椎骨折脱位后路椎弓根钉内固定术中应用的精确性和安全性。方法纳入16例经X线片、CT、MRI检查确诊的寰枢椎骨折脱位,均行后路切开复位椎弓根钉内固定术,其中8例术中应用CT导航置入椎弓根钉(观察组),8例在C型臂X线机透视下置入椎弓根钉(对照组)。结果观察组置入32枚椎弓根钉,其中Ⅰ类置钉27枚,Ⅱ类置钉4例,Ⅲ类置钉1例;对照组置入32枚椎弓根钉,其中Ⅰ类置钉14枚,Ⅱ类置钉9例,Ⅲ类置钉9例。观察组椎弓根钉置入准确率高于对照组,差异有统计学意义(P 0.05)。所有患者均未出现有临床症状的神经、血管损伤,没有因为置钉位置不佳而再次手术者。结论 CT导航下手术可对解剖结构呈现多平面图像,有利于术者更好地判断置钉方向与角度,并可在椎弓根钉置入后立即进行CT扫描评价,及时发现并矫正对脊髓、神经、血管有影响的螺钉,提高椎弓根钉置入准确率。     

单、双箱型椎间融合器在PLIF手术治疗腰椎不稳症中的比较研究

目的 应用单、双箱型椎间融合器(Cage)联合椎弓根内固定系统治疗腰椎不稳症,通过比较影像学变化及临床症状改善情况,探讨应用单枚箱型Cage联合椎弓根内固定系统进行椎间融合的可行性.方法 在对56例单节段腰椎不稳症患者施行PLIF(Posterior lumar interbody fusion)手术,均行后路短节段椎弓根钉系统复位与内固定,实施单枚Cage椎体间植骨37例,双枚Cage椎体间植骨19例.统计两组手术的平均手术时间及术中出血量.用M-JOA评分的症状改善率评价患者治疗效果,并观察手术并发症.术前、术后及随访期间摄X线片,观察椎体间高度、整个腰椎前凸弧度、融合节段前凸弧度、融合节段间的滑移,并辅助CT判断植骨融合情况.结果 单枚Cage植入组较双枚Cage植入组手术时间短(P<0.01),出血少(P<0.01).术前术后的椎体间高度、整个腰椎前凸弧度、融合时间二组病例之间没有统计学意义(P>0.05).两组下腰痛症状改善率无统计学意义(P>0.05).两组骨融合率均为100%.结论 使用单枚箱型Cage与双枚箱型Cage行椎间融合联合椎弓根内固定系统均是治疗腰椎不稳症的有效治疗方式,二者在缓解下腰部疼痛、椎间融合率方面效果显著.单枚箱型Cage行椎间融合联合椎弓根内固定系统行PLIF手术具有手术时间短,出血量少,创伤小,患者医疗费用少等优点,值得临床推广应用.     

体外椎节数字定位球囊扩张椎体内植人工骨结合椎弓根钉内固定治疗胸腰椎骨折

目的探讨采用体外椎节数字定位、球囊扩张、椎体内植人工骨结合椎弓根钉系统内固定治疗胸腰椎骨折的疗效。方法采用定位尺体外定位选择术口、球囊扩张、椎体内植人工骨结合椎弓根钉系统固定治疗胸腰椎骨折18例。结果18例经随访3~24个月,平均12个月,植骨融合佳,椎体高度和生理弧度保持良好。结论采用体外椎节数字定位、球囊扩张、椎体内植人工骨结合椎弓根钉系统内固定治疗胸腰椎骨折,撑开安全有力,节约手术时间,疗效确切,可显著减少术中医患X射线接触量。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.