From child maltreatment to adolescent cannabis abuse and dependence: a developmental cascade model

A developmental cascade model tested associations among child maltreatment, internalizing and externalizing psychopathology, social competence, and cannabis abuse and dependence symptoms in a longitudinal cohort (N = 415). Nested structural equation models evaluated continuity and cross-domain influences among broad multi-informant constructs across four developmental periods: age 7 to 9, 10 to 12, 13 to 15, and 15 to 18. Results indicated significant paths from child maltreatment to early externalizing and internalizing problems and social competence, as well as to cannabis abuse and dependence (CAD) symptoms in adolescence. Youth CAD symptoms were primarily related directly to child maltreatment and externalizing problems. Childhood internalizing symptoms contributed to later childhood decreases in social competence, which predicted increases in late adolescent externalizing problems. Using a developmental psychopathology framework, results are discussed in relation to cascade and transactional effects and the interplay between problem behaviors during childhood and development of CAD symptoms during early and late adolescence.     

Dimensions of child maltreatment and children's adjustment: contributions of developmental timing and subtype.

This investigation examined the dimensions of developmental timing, subtype, and severity of maltreatment and their relations with child adaptation. The 814 children who participated in a summer day camp, 492 of whom were maltreated and 322 of whom were nonmaltreated comparison children, were assessed by camp counselors on their internalizing and externalizing symptomatology, aggressive, withdrawn, and cooperative behavior, and on personality dimensions of ego resiliency and ego control, and were rated by peers on disruptive, aggressive, and cooperative behavior. The severity within each subtype of maltreatment and the developmental period in which each subtype occurred were examined through hierarchical regression analyses. Additionally, children with similar timing or subtype patterns were grouped to explore diversity in outcomes. Results highlighted the role of severity of emotional maltreatment in the infancy-toddlerhood period and physical abuse during the preschool period in predicting externalizing behavior and aggression. Severity of physical neglect, particularly when it occurred during the preschool period, was associated with internalizing symptomatology and withdrawn behavior. Additionally, maltreatment during the school-age period contributed significant variance after earlier maltreatment was controlled. Chronic maltreatment, especially with onset during infancy-toddlerhood or preschool periods, was linked with more maladaptive outcomes. The implications of measuring multiple dimensions for improving research in child maltreatment are discussed.     

Distinct Mechanisms Underlie Associations Between Forms of Childhood Maltreatment and Disruptive Nocturnal Behaviors

Childhood maltreatment is associated with risk for sleep disturbances, including Disruptive Nocturnal Behaviors (DNBs). Yet, little is known regarding associations between specific forms of maltreatment and DNBs, or factors that mediate and moderate these associations. Data from a community sample of high-risk youth (n = 193; M = 18.87 years old) indicated that self-reported emotional and sexual abuse during childhood made specific contributions to DNBs at the time of assessment. Trauma-related psychopathology mediated the effects of emotional abuse. Furthermore, executive function moderated the effects of sexual abuse. Findings suggest that distinct mechanisms underlie associations between maltreatment types and DNBs.     

The timing of child physical maltreatment: a cross-domain growth analysis of impact on adolescent externalizing and internalizing problems.

In a sample of 578 children assessed in kindergarten through the eighth grade, we used growth modeling to determine the basic developmental trajectories of mother-reported and teacher-reported externalizing and internalizing behaviors for three physical maltreatment groups of children-early-harmed (prior to age 5 years), later-harmed (age 5 years and over), and nonharmed--controlling for SES and gender. Results demonstrated that the earlier children experienced harsh physical treatment by significant adults, the more likely they were to experience adjustment problems in early adolescence. Over multiple domains, early physical maltreatment was related to more negative sequelae than the same type of maltreatment occurring at later periods. In addition, the fitted growth models revealed that the early-harmed group exhibited someswhat higher initial levels of teacher-reported externalizing problems in kindergarten and significantly different rates of change in these problem behaviors than other children, as reported by mothers over the 9 years of this study. The early-harmed children were also seen by teachers, in kindergarten, as exhibiting higher levels of internalizing behaviors. The later-harmed children were seen by their teachers as increasing their externalizing problem behaviors more rapidly over the 9 years than did the early- or nonharmed children. These findings indicate that the timing of maltreatment is a salient factor in examining the developmental effects of physical harm.     

Narrative Representations of Moral-Affiliative and Conflictual Themes and Behavioral Problems in Maltreated Preschoolers

Examined whether maltreated preschoolers are more likely than nonmaltreated preschoolers to have fewer moral-affiliative and more conflictual narrative representations and whether these representations mediate child behavior problems. A structured narrative story-telling task was administered to assess representations, and independent ratings of behavior problems were obtained from teachers. The narratives of maltreated children contained more conflictual and fewer moral-affiliative themes. Maltreated children also exhibited more internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. A partial mediation effect of conflictual representations on the relation between child maltreatment and externalizing behavior problems was found. The results demonstrate the relation between child maltreatment and children's organization of their life experiences and their behavioral symptomatology.     

Who is to blame? Oxytocin promotes nonpersonalistic attributions in response to a trust betrayal

Recent research revealed that the neuropeptide Oxytocin (OT) increases and maintains trustful behavior, even towards interaction partners that have proven to be untrustworthy. However, the cognitive mechanisms behind this effect are unclear. In the present paper, we propose that OT might boost trust through the link between angry rumination and the use of nonpersonalistic and personalistic attributions. Nonpersonalistic attributions put the blame for the betrayal on the perpetrator's situation, whereas personalistic attributions blame his dispositions for the event. We predict that OT changes attribution processes in favor of nonpersonalistic ones and thereby boosts subsequent trust. Participants played a classic trust game in which the opponent systematically betrayed their trust. As predicted, OT strengthened the relationship between angry rumination about the event and nonpersonalistic attribution of the opponents’ behavior and weakened the link between angry rumination and personalistic attribution. Critically, nonpersonalistic attribution also mediated the interactive effect of OT and angry rumination on how strongly investments were reduced in the remaining rounds of the trust game. In summary, the present findings suggest that one underlying cognitive mechanism behind OT-induced trust might relate to how negative emotions evoked by a breach of trust influence the subsequent attributional analysis: OT seems to augment trust by fostering the interpretation of untrustworthy behavior as caused by non-personal factors.     

Longitudinal relations between parental drinking problems, family functioning, and child adjustment

Relations between maternal and paternal problem drinking symptoms and destructive marital conflict, parenting problems, and children's internalizing and externalizing problems were investigated. Participants were community families with a child in kindergarten who completed questionnaire measures at baseline (N=235), 1 year later (N=227), and 2 years later (N=215). Structural equation modeling revealed that paternal problem drinking at Time 1 was associated with greater destructive marital conflict 1 year later. In turn, destructive marital conflict was related to decreased parental warmth and increased parental psychological control; these parenting problems were associated with greater child internalizing and externalizing problems at the third time point. Further analyses revealed that the indirect effects of paternal drinking on children's adjustment were significant, and that relations remained even after including autoregressive effects. Findings are discussed in terms of family process models for relations between parental drinking and child adjustment problems.     

The ecology of adolescent maltreatment: a multilevel examination of adolescent physical abuse, sexual abuse, and neglect

This study examined the individual characteristics, family relations, and stress/social support of 50 maltreated adolescents and their mothers. Dyads were divided into 4 demographically similar groups: neglect, physical abuse, sexual abuse, and nonmaltreatment control. Results show that adolescent neglect was primarily associated with extrafamilial difficulties and social isolation. Adolescent physical abuse was linked more with rigidity in family relations, poorer maternal understanding of child developmental skills, and adolescent externalizing behaviors. In contrast, adolescent sexual abuse was related to maternal emotional problems and adolescent internalizing behaviors. In general, each group of maltreated adolescents experienced lower levels of family cohesion, more attention problems, and more daily stress than did their nonmaltreated counterparts. Findings are consistent with an ecological model of adolescent maltreatment.     

Couple power dynamics, systemic family functioning, and child adjustment: a test of a mediational model in a multiethnic sample

Power dynamics in the marital dyad and systemic elements of whole-family functioning (cohesion, subsystem boundary formations) were examined in relation to each other and also in relation to child adjustment in a multiethnic sample of families. Support was found for a mediational model, such that family functioning was found to mediate the relationship between marital power dynamics and children's internalizing and externalizing behavior. Some support also was found for ethnicity as a moderator of the association between systemic family processes and children's adjustment. Disturbances in family cohesion and subsystem boundaries were more strongly related to internalizing symptomatology for children in European American families compared to children in Hispanic American families.     

Developmental trajectories of externalizing and internalizing behaviors: factors underlying resilience in physically abused children

Using a multisite community sample of 585 children, this study examined how protective and vulnerability factors alter trajectories of teacher-reported externalizing and internalizing behavior from kindergarten through Grade 8 for children who were and were not physically abused during the first 5 years of life. Early lifetime history of physical abuse (11.8% of sample) was determined through interviews with mothers during the prekindergarten period; mothers and children provided data on vulnerability and protective factors. Regardless of whether the child was abused, being African American; being male; having low early social competence, low early socioeconomic status (SES), and low adolescent SES; and experiencing adolescent harsh discipline, low monitoring, and low parental knowledge were related to higher levels of externalizing problems over time. Having low early social competence, low early SES, low adolescent SES, and low proactive parenting were related to higher levels of internalizing problems over time. Furthermore, resilience effects, defined as significant interaction effects, were found for unilateral parental decision making (lower levels are protective of externalizing outcomes for abused children), early stress (lower levels are protective of internalizing outcomes for abused children), adolescent stress (lower levels are protective of internalizing outcomes for abused children), and hostile attributions (higher levels are protective of internalizing outcomes for abused children). The findings provide a great deal of support for an additive or main effect perspective on vulnerability and protective factors and some support for an interactive perspective. It appears that some protective and vulnerability factors do not have stronger effects for physically abused children, but instead are equally beneficial or harmful to children regardless of their abuse status.     

Violence exposure and adjustment in inner-city youth: child and caregiver emotion regulation skill, caregiver-child relationship quality, and neighborhood cohesion as protective factor.

This short-term, longitudinal interview study used an ecological framework to explore protective factors within the child, the caregiver, the caregiver-child relationship, and the community that might moderate relations between community violence exposure and subsequent internalizing and externalizing adjustment problems and the different patterns of protection they might confer. Participants included 101 pairs of African American female caregivers and one of their children (56% male, M = 11.15 yrs, SD = 1.28) living in high-violence areas of a mid-sized southeastern city. Child emotion regulation skill, felt acceptance from caregiver, observed quality of caregiver-child interaction, and caregiver regulation of emotion each were protective, but the pattern of protection differed across level of the child's ecology and form of adjustment. Implications for prevention are discussed.     

Violence Exposure and Adjustment in Inner-City Youth: Child and Caregiver Emotion Regulation Skill,Caregiver–Child Relationship Quality,and Neighborhood Cohesion as Protective Factor

This short-term, longitudinal interview study used an ecological framework to explore protective factors within the child, the caregiver, the caregiver–child relationship, and the community that might moderate relations between community violence exposure and subsequent internalizing and externalizing adjustment problems and the different patterns of protection they might confer. Participants included 101 pairs of African American female caregivers and one of their children (56% male, M = 11.15 yrs, SD = 1.28) living in high-violence areas of a mid-sized southeastern city. Child emotion regulation skill, felt acceptance from caregiver, observed quality of caregiver–child interaction, and caregiver regulation of emotion each were protective, but the pattern of protection differed across level of the child's ecology and form of adjustment. Implications for prevention are discussed.     

Psychopathic personality traits: heritability and genetic overlap with internalizing and externalizing psychopathology

BACKGROUND: Little research has examined genetic and environmental contributions to psychopathic personality traits. Additionally, no studies have examined etiological connections between psychopathic traits and the broad psychopathological domains of internalizing (mood and anxiety) and externalizing (antisocial behavior, substance abuse). The current study was designed to fill these gaps in the literature. METHOD: Participants were 626 pairs of 17-year-old male and female twins from the community. Psychopathic traits were indexed using scores on the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ). Symptoms of internalizing and externalizing psychopathology were obtained via structured clinical interviews. Structural equation modeling was used to estimate genetic and environmental influences on psychopathic personality traits as well as the degree of genetic overlap between these traits and composites of internalizing and externalizing. RESULTS: Twin analyses revealed significant genetic influence on distinct psychopathic traits (Fearless Dominance and Impulsive Antisociality). Moreover, Fearless Dominance was associated with reduced genetic risk for internalizing psychopathology, and Impulsive Antisociality was associated with increased genetic risk for externalizing psychopathology. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that different psychopathic traits as measured by the MPQ show distinct genetically based relations with broad dimensions of DSM psychopathology.     

Marital Adjustment,Marital Discord Over Childrearing,and Child Behavior Problems: Moderating Effects of Child Age

Examined whether marital discord over childrearing contributes to child behavior problems after taking into account general marital adjustment, and if child age moderates associations between child behavior problems and either general marital adjustment or marital discord over childrearing. Participants were 146 two-parent families seeking services for their child's (4 to 9 years of age) conduct problems. Data on marital functioning and child behavior problems were collected from both parents. Mothers' and fathers' reports of marital discord over childrearing related positively to child externalizing problems after accounting for general marital adjustment. Child age moderated associations between fathers' reports of general marital adjustment and both internalizing and externalizing child problems, with associations being stronger in families with younger children. The discussion highlights the role that developmental factors may play in understanding the link between marital and child behavior problems in clinic-referred families.     

Anger and Sadness Regulation: Predictions to Internalizing and Externalizing Symptoms in Children

Examined the relation between children's self-reported anger and sadness regulation and the presence of internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Participants were 121 boys and 106 girls in the fourth and fifth grades who completed the Children's Depression Inventory (CDI), State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children (STAIC), Emotion Expression Scale for Children (EESC), and Children's Emotion Management Scales (CSMS, CAMS) and rated each other on aggressive behavior. Results of multiple regression analyses indicated that the inability to identify emotional states, the inhibition of anger, the dysregulation of anger and sadness, and the constructive coping with anger predicted internalizing symptoms. The dysregulated expression of sadness and constructive coping with anger were inversely related to externalizing symptoms.     

Interactive effects of internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors on recurrent pain in children

OBJECTIVE: To examine, in children, relationships between self-reported recurrent pain and emotion regulation indicated by rated internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors and adjustment. METHOD: Finnish 11-12-year-old schoolchildren (N = 414) completed a questionnaire measuring recurrent pain. Emotion regulation was assessed by a Multidimensional Peer Nomination Inventory, Teacher Rating Form. Relationships between recurrent pain and emotion regulation were examined in logistic regression analyses, after controlling for past injuries and chronic illnesses. RESULTS: Independent of injuries and chronic illnesses, externalizing and internalizing problem behaviors related to recurrent pain, and more so together than separately. Gender differences were found; constructive behavior associated with recurrent pain only in girls. CONCLUSIONS: Low self-control of emotions, indicated by internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors, was related to pain in both boys and girls; high self-control of emotions, indicated by constructive behavior, associated with pain only in girls.     

The Impact of Perceived Racism: Psychological Symptoms Among African American Boys

Examined the relations among perceived racism and externalizing symptoms, internalizing symptoms, hopelessness, and self-concept in African American boys (N = 84). The experience of racism is a complex phenomenon that has been found to have negative psychological outcomes in adult studies of African Americans. There has been a gap in the empirical literature regarding the possible associations between perceived racism and children's psychological well-being. This study is an attempt to address that gap. Results demonstrated that experiences of racism were related to self- and parent-reported externalizing symptoms. Personal experiences of racism were related to self-reported internalizing symptoms, lower self-concept, and higher levels of hopelessness. Potential mediators (e.g., trait anger, hostile attribution bias) were analyzed. Additional analyses indicated that trait anger mediated a number of the observed relations between perceived racism and behavioral symptoms. The results of the study suggest that perceived racism is associated with multiple negative correlates for African American boys.     

Perceived discrimination and youths' adjustment: sleep as a moderator

Adolescents' sleep duration was examined as a moderator of the association between perceived discrimination and internalizing (anxiety, depression) and externalizing symptoms. Participants were 252 adolescents (mean: 15.79 years; 66% European American, 34% African American) who reported on their perceived discrimination (racial and general) and adjustment. Sleep duration was measured using actigraphy. Moderation effects were evident. The lowest levels of internalizing symptoms were observed for adolescents with longer sleep duration in conjunction with lower levels of perceived racial discrimination. Further, general perceived discrimination was associated more strongly with externalizing behaviours for youth with shorter versus longer sleep. Findings highlight the importance of sleep as a bioregulatory system that can ameliorate or exacerbate the effects of discrimination on youths' adjustment.     

Social competence, externalizing, and internalizing behavioral adjustment from early childhood through early adolescence: developmental cascades

This study used a three-wave longitudinal design to investigate developmental cascades among social competence and externalizing and internalizing behavioral adjustment in a normative sample of 117 children seen at 4, 10, and 14 years. Children, mothers, and teachers provided data. A series of nested path analysis models was used to determine the most parsimonious and plausible cascades across the three constructs over and above their covariation at each age and stability across age. Children with lower social competence at age 4 years exhibited more externalizing and internalizing behaviors at age 10 years and more externalizing behaviors at age 14 years. Children with lower social competence at age 4 years also exhibited more internalizing behaviors at age 10 years and more internalizing behaviors at age 14 years. Children who exhibited more internalizing behaviors at age 4 years exhibited more internalizing behaviors at age 10 years and more externalizing behaviors at age 14 years. These cascades among social competence and behavioral adjustment obtained independent of child intelligence and maternal education and social desirability of responding.     

The role of parent stress and coping and family functioning in parent and child adjustment to Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

This study found 57% of parents of 35 children with Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (4 to 14 years of age) to have self-reported poor psychological adjustment. The hypothesized mediational variables of parent appraisal of stress, relative use of palliative coping methods, and level of family conflict accounted for 58% of the variance in general distress, 50% in depressive symptoms, and 31% in anxiety symptoms. In terms of parent-reported child adjustment, 89% of the children were classified by parent report as having a behavior problem pattern. The internalizing profile pattern was most frequent (37%). The parent mediational variables accounted for 26% of the variance in parent-reported internalizing behavior problems and 29% in externalizing behavior problems.