Partial fast-to-slow conversion of regenerating rat fast-twitch muscle by chronic low-frequency stimulation

Chronic low-frequency stimulation (CLFS) of rat fast-twitch muscles induces sequential transitions in myosin heavy chain (MHC) expression from MHCIIb MHCIId/x MHCIIa. However, the final step of the fast-to-slow transition, i.e., the upregulation of MHCI, has been observed only after extremely long stimulation periods. Assuming that fibre degeneration/regeneration might be involved in the upregulation of slow myosin, we investigated the effects of CLFS on extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscles regenerating after bupivacaine-induced fibre necrosis. Normal, non-regenerating muscles responded to both 30- and 60-day CLFS with fast MHC isoform transitions (MHCIIb MHCIId MHCIIa) and only slight increases in MHCI. CLFS of regenerating EDL muscles caused similar transitions among the fast isoforms but, in addition, caused significant increases in MHCI (to 30% relative concentration). Stimulation periods of 30 and 60 days induced similar changes in the regenerating bupivacaine-treated muscles, indicating that the upregulation of slow myosin was restricted to regenerating fibres, but only during an early stage of regeneration. These results suggest that satellite cells and/or regenerating fast rat muscle fibres are capable of switching directly to a slow program under the influence of CLFS and, therefore, appear to be more malleable than adult fibres.     

Satellite cell ablation attenuates short-term fast-to-slow fibre type transformations in rat fast-twitch skeletal muscle

The purpose of this time-course study was to determine whether satellite cell ablation within rat tibialis anterior (TA) muscles exposed to short-term chronic low-frequency stimulation (CLFS) would limit fast-to-slow fibre type transformations. Satellite cells of the left TA were ablated by exposure to γ-irradiation before 1, 2, 5 or 10 days of CLFS and 1 week later where required. Control groups received only CLFS or a sham operation. Continuous infusion of 5-bromo-2′-deoxyuridine revealed that CLFS first induced an increase in satellite cell proliferation at 1 day, up to a maximum at 10 days over control (mean ± SEM, 5.7 ± 0.7 and 20.4 ± 1.0 versus 1.5 ± 0.2 mm⁻², respectively, P < 0.007) that was abolished by γ-irradiation. Myosin heavy chain mRNA, immunohistochemical and sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis analyses revealed CLFS-induced fast-to-slow fibre type transformation began at 5 days and continued at 10 days; in those muscles that were also exposed to γ-irradiation, attenuation occurred within the fast fibre population, and the final fast-twitch to slow-twitch adaptation did not occur. These findings indicate satellite cells play active and obligatory roles early on in the time course during skeletal muscle fibre type adaptations to CLFS.     

Deficient IFN-γ Expression in Umbilical Cord Blood (UCB) T Cells Can Be Rescued by IFN-γ-Mediated Increase in NFATc2 Expression

Regulation of nuclear factor of activated T cells-c2 (NFATc2) gene expression is not clearly defined. We previously reported reduced NFATc2 protein expression in cord blood T lymphocytes. Here we show that NFATc2 expression in T cells is dependent in part on the presence of IFN-gamma during primary stimulation, as blocking of IFN-gamma blunted NFATc2 protein and mRNA upregulation. Conversely, addition of exogenous IFN-gamma during stimulation resulted in increased expression of NFATc2 in cord blood T lymphocytes. This correlated with rescue of deficient IFN-gamma expression by cord blood T cells. Rescue of IFN-gamma expression in cord blood T cells was dependent on the presence of antigen-presenting cells, as addition of IFN-gamma during stimulation of purified cord blood T cells did not result in an increase of IFN-gamma expression, and depletion of monocytes ablated the rescue of IFN-gamma expression. Our results point to impaired function in the antigen-presenting cell population of cord blood, playing a role in the hyporesponsiveness of T cells.     

Intermediate filament proteins increase during chronic stimulation of skeletal muscle

Summary Chronic low-frequency electrical stimulation of rabbit fast-twitch skeletal muscle induces increased levels of two intermediate filament proteins, desmin and vimentin, during the first 3 weeks of stimulation. These increases occur over the same timecourse as reported shifts in -actinin expression and increased Z-disc width, but precede the fast-to-slow shifts in contractile proteins, which have been described by others. Desmin and vimentin levels increase during the first 2 weeks of stimulation, at which time the increase in desmin appears to plateau while vimentin continues to increase significantly through 3 weeks of stimulation. Absolute amounts of vimentin are lower than desmin at all time points, however increases in desmin and vimentin levels are strongly correlated during the stimulation period, suggesting that the two proteins are coordinately increased during the initial phases of muscle transformation. We suggest that rapid increases in the expression of intermediate filament proteins, which coincide with alterations in Z-disc structure, may indicate a fortification of the force-bearing ultrastructure of the muscle fibre in response to the increased activity that is induced by stimulation. The presence of vimentin and elevated levels of desmin expression suggest that mature skeletal muscle reverts toward a developmental program of intermediate filament protein expression during fast-to-slow transformation.     

Type IIB to IIA fiber transformation in intermittently stimulated rabbit muscles

Long-term intermittent stimulation (10 Hz, 8 h/day, 7 wk) of the fast-twitch tibialis anterior results in a complete transformation of type IIB fibers to type IIA fibers. This is shown by the histochemical ATPase reaction and by a decrease in Ca2+-uptake ability by the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Furthermore, as shown by studies on bulk myosin and on single fibers, the LC1-to-LC3 light chain ratio is increased on sodium dodecylsulfate gel electrophoretograms, and there are changes in the myosin isozyme pattern manifested on pyrophosphate gels under nondissociating conditions. Thus the staining intensity of the slower moving putative LC1 homodimer band increases, and there is a difference in migration velocity between stimulated and unstimulated isozymes suggesting a possible difference in the heavy chain. This study underlines the importance of the stimulation schedule in determining whether a fast-to-slow transformation or a shift in subtype takes place.     

α-cardiac-like myosin heavy chain MHCIα is not upregulated in transforming rat muscle

The expression of MHCI, an -cardiac-like myosin heavy chain isoform, was studied in extensor digitorum longus (EDL) and tibialis anterior (TA) rat muscles undergoing fast-to-slow transition by chronic low-frequency stimulation (CLFS), a condition inducing a transient upregulation of MHCI in rabbit muscle. In order to enhance the transformation process, CLFS was applied to hypothyroid rats. mRNA analyses were performed by RT-PCR, and studies at the protein level by immunoblotting and immunohistochemistry, using the F88 antibody (F88 12F8,1) demonstrated in the accompanying paper to be specific for MHCI. In total RNA preparations from slow- and fast-twitch muscles, MHCI mRNA was present at minute levels, at least three orders of magnitude lower than in cardiac atrium. As verified immunohistochemically, MHCI is present only in intrafusal fibres of rat muscle. Moreover, MHCI is not expressed in extrafusal fibres and, contrary to the rabbit, was not upregulated at both the mRNA and protein levels by CLFS. These results support our notion of species-specific responses to CLFS. Another antibody reported to be specific to MHCI, BA-G5, was also investigated by immunoblot and immunohistochemical analyses. Its specificity could not be validated for skeletal muscles of the rat. BG-A5 was shown to cross-react with MHCIIb and MHCI. These results question an upregulation of MHCI in transforming rat muscles as reported in studies based on the use of this antibody.     

Compensatory effects of chronic electrostimulation on unweighted rat soleus muscle

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of electrostimulation in counteracting the transformation of the unweighted rat soleus muscle. The stimulation resembled the firing patterns of normal slow motor units and was imposed during hindlimb suspension. For the 10-day hindlimb suspended rats, the transformation of the slow soleus muscle towards a faster type was characterized by a decrease in the time to peak tension and the half-relaxation time of the twitch, a reduction in the P ₂₀/P ₀ index, i. e. the ratio of the subtetanic tension at 20 Hz relative to the tetanic tension, and a decrease in the percentage distributions of type I fibres accompanied by an increase of type IIa and IIc fibres. These changes were prevented by electrostimulation since, for the parameters mentioned above, no significant difference was observed in the soleus of the suspended rats that received electrostimulation when compared with the control rats. Nevertheless, neither the loss of mass nor the decrease in force output in the suspended rats were prevented by electrostimulation. The present results suggest a positive compensation of the suspension-induced alterations in the contractile and histochemical properties of the soleus muscle by means of chronic electrostimulation, which, however, do not prevent atrophy or the loss of contractile force.     

Training effects on the contractile apparatus

Skeletal muscle is an extremely heterogeneous tissue, composed of a large variety of fibre types. Its dynamical nature is reflected by the ability to adapt to altered functional demands by qualitative alterations in fibre type composition. The molecular basis of this versatility is that specific myofibrillar and Ca²⁺-regulatory protein isoforms are assembled to functionally specialized fibre types. Based on this diversity, adult muscle fibres are capable of changing their molecular composition by altered gene expression. Myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoforms and their unique expression in 'pure' fibres, as well as their coexpression in 'hybrid' 'fibres' represent the best markers of muscle fibre diversity and adaptive changes. Chronic low-frequency stimulation (CLFS) and endurance training represent highly suitable models for studying the effects of increased neuromuscular activity on myofibrillar protein isoform expression and fibre type composition. Generally, both models induce fast-to-slow transitions in myofibrillar protein isoforms and fibre types. However, the responses to endurance training are quantitatively less pronounced than those in muscles exposed to CLFS. Parallel changes in isoforms of specific myofibrillar or Ca²⁺-regulatory proteins during the induced fast-to-slow transitions point to the existence of fibre type-specific patterns of gene expression. The fast-to-slow transitions do not proceed in abrupt jumps from one extreme to the other, but occur in a gradual and orderly sequential manner. Depending on the basal protein isoform profile, and hence the position within the fast–slow spectrum, the adaptive ranges of different fibre types vary. However, adaptive ranges not only depend on a particular fibre type, but also are influenced by species-specific properties.     

Rapid-rate paired associative stimulation of the median nerve and motor cortex can produce long-lasting changes in motor cortical excitability in humans

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) or repetitive electrical peripheral nerve stimulation (rENS) can induce changes in the excitability of the human motor cortex (M1) that is often short-lasting and variable, and occurs only after prolonged periods of stimulation. In 10 healthy volunteers, we used a new repetitive paired associative stimulation (rPAS) protocol to facilitate and prolong the effects of rENS and rTMS on cortical excitability. Sub-motor threshold 5 Hz rENS of the right median nerve was synchronized with submotor threshold 5 Hz rTMS of the left M1 at a constant interval for 2 min. The interstimulus interval (ISI) between the peripheral stimulus and the transcranial stimulation was set at 10 ms (5 Hz rPAS_10ms) or 25 ms (5 Hz rPAS_25ms). TMS was given over the hot spot of the right abductor pollicis brevis (APB) muscle. Before and after rPAS, we measured the amplitude of the unconditioned motor evoked potential (MEP), intracortical inhibition (ICI) and facilitation (ICF), short- and long-latency afferent inhibition (SAI and LAI) in the conditioned M1. The 5 Hz rPAS_25ms protocol but not the 5 Hz rPAS10_ms protocol caused a somatotopically specific increase in mean MEP amplitudes in the relaxed APB muscle. The 5 Hz rPAS_25ms protocol also led to a loss of SAI, but there was no correlation between individual changes in SAI and corticospinal excitability. These after-effects were still present 6 h after 5 Hz rPAS_25ms. There was no consistent effect on ICI, ICF and LAI. The 5 Hz rENS and 5 Hz rTMS protocols failed to induce any change in corticospinal excitability when given alone. These findings show that 2 min of 5 Hz rPAS_25ms produce a long-lasting and somatotopically specific increase in corticospinal excitability, presumably by sensorimotor disinhibition.     

CD137-CD137L相互作用对ApoE-/-小鼠NFATc1表达的影响

目的: 观察CD137-CD137配体(CD137L)轴对载脂蛋白E基因敲除(ApoE^-/-)小鼠活化T细胞核因子胞浆1型(NFATc1)表达的影响。方法: ApoE^-/-小鼠动脉粥样斑块模型采用颈动脉硅胶圈植入法;分别采用免疫组化及流式细胞术检测小鼠颈动脉斑块及淋巴细胞NFATc1表达;分别应用RT-PCR和流式细胞技术检测体外培养的小鼠淋巴细胞NFATc1 mRNA和蛋白表达。结果: 在体情况下应用anti-CD137特异性刺激CD137-CD137L轴后,ApoE^-/-小鼠斑块及脾脏中淋巴细胞NFATc1表达增加;体外培养的淋巴细胞刺激CD137-CD137L轴后,淋巴细胞NFATc1 mRNA和蛋白表达明显上调,anti-CD137刺激浓度以20 mg/L时作用最强,作用24 h最明显(P<0.05)。应用Anti-CD137L特异性阻断CD137-CD137L轴能明显抑制NFATc1 mRNA及蛋白表达,浓度在20 mg/L时抑制最强,时间为24 h后抑制最佳(P<0.05)。结论: ApoE^-/-小鼠体内NFATc1的表达受CD137-CD137L轴调控。     

PPAR-α激活对ET-1诱导的心肌肥大和转录因子NFATc4的影响

目的： 研究过氧化物酶体增殖物激活受体-α（PPAR-α）激活对内皮素-1（ET-1）诱导的心肌肥大和活化T细胞核因子c4(NFATc4)的影响,探讨在心肌肥大发病过程中PPAR-α和NFATc4的相互作用。方法: 培养新生SD大鼠心肌细胞,采用［3H］亮氨酸法和RT-PCR法观察PPAR-α激动剂非诺贝特对ET-1诱导的心肌细胞肥大的影响;应用免疫荧光和免疫共沉淀技术分别检测非诺贝特对ET-1诱导的NFATc4核转位以及PPAR-α和NFATc4相互作用的影响;用Western blotting法检测NFATc4的胞浆和胞核表达。结果: （1）PPAR-α激动剂非诺贝特显著抑制ET-1诱导的肥厚反应。(2)非诺贝特阻止ET-1诱导NFATc4由胞浆到胞核的转位。(3)在心肌细胞中,PPAR-α和NFATc4之间存在相互作用,非诺贝特加强了这种相互作用。结论: PPAR-α激活后可以通过调控转录因子NFATc4来抑制ET-1诱导的心肌肥大反应。     

Mode of induction of long-term depression at parallel fibre--Purkinje cell synapses in rabbit cerebellar cortex

In a superficial folium of the dorsal paraflocculus of high decerebrate rabbits, extracellular unitary spikes were recorded from a Purkinje cell, while two parallel fibre beams impinging onto that Purkinje cell were separately stimulated in the molecular layer. Climbing fibre afferents were stimulated at the contralateral inferior olive. Quisqualate was ionophoretically applied to the dendrite of the Purkinje cell intersecting one of the stimulated parallel fibre beams (test beam). Long-term depression (longer than 45 min) occurred in Purkinje cell responsiveness to the test beam, but not to the other beam (control beam), when quisqualate was applied for 4 min in conjunction with 2 Hz stimulation of climbing fibres. This effect was completely abolished by simultaneous application of a glutamate blocker, kynurenate, during conjunctive quisqualate-climbing fibre stimulation. Application of quisqualate alone caused a small degree of depression in parallel fibre-Purkinje cell transmission. This effect was abolished when spontaneous activity of climbing fibres was blocked by injection of tetrodotoxin or lidocaine to the contralateral inferior olive, and therefore was due to conjunction of quisqualate with spontaneous climbing fibre inputs that normally occurred at 0.5-1.2 Hz. These findings suggest that the occurrence of long-term depression is strictly dependent on conjunction of climbing fibre activity with quisqualate receptor activation.     

Coordinated fast-to-slow transitions of myosin and SERCA isoforms in chronically stimulated muscles of euthyroid and hyperthyroid rabbits

Changes in the patterns of myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoforms, isomyosins, and Ca2+-ATPase (SERCA) isoforms were studied in long-term (72 d) stimulated fast-twitch extensor digitorum longus (EDL) and tibialis anterior (TA) muscles of euthyroid and hyperthyroid rabbits. The chronic low-frequency stimulation- induced fast-to-slow transitions in MHC isoforms, isomyosins and SERCA isoforms were pronounced in muscles from euthyroid rabbits, but less pronounced in muscles from hyperthyroid rabbits. Thus, hyperthyroidism counteracted to some extent the stimulation- induced fast-to-slow transition. Analyses of all parameters were performed on the same individual muscles, providing information on the co-ordinated expression of SERCA and myosin isoforms. A high correlation (r = 0.97) was detected between relative concentrations of slow SERCA2a and slow MHCI isoforms. This correlation persisted under all experimental conditions, suggesting a co-ordinated expression of slow myosin and Ca2+- ATPase isoforms. Conversely, fast SERCA1a was correlated to fast myosin isoforms as a whole This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

体表脉冲电刺激大动物的安全性评估

背景：目前电刺激技术已成为研究热点,但其对机体心电活动的影响尚不明确,且既往此方面研究主要针对小型动物。目的：在不影响心电活动的前提下,寻找刺激猪肝区所能使用最大的脉冲电压及频率。方法：取健康雄性荣昌猪3头,将脉冲电刺激仪输出电极固定于猪肝右叶体表投影前后对应部位,设置固定电刺激参数为波宽10 ms、方波,刺激时间为1 h,分别进行5-100 V的电压耐受实验和1-5 Hz的频率耐受实验,观察猪的动态心电图变化、其不适反应和生活行为的改变。结果与结论：电压耐受实验中脉冲电刺激电压高低与心率增量呈正相关;当电压> 35 V时,可发生窦性心律不齐、室性早搏等轻度心律失常,无恶性心律失常、死亡;当电压> 60 V时,可见电刺激诱发形成的qRs波。频率耐受实验中当频率> 2 Hz时可见心律失常发生,无恶性心律失常,脉冲电刺激可诱发形成qRs波。提示选择参数为电压35 V、频率2 Hz的脉冲电刺激猪肝区是安全的,电压大于35 V或频率大于2 Hz的脉冲电刺激猪肝区均可引发心律失常,多为良性心律失常。中国组织工程研究杂志出版内容重点：肾移植;肝移植;移植;心脏移植;组织移植;皮肤移植;皮瓣移植;血管移植;器官移植;组织工程     

Sos2抑制NFATc1介导的糖尿病肾病足细胞损伤的机制研究

目的:观察高糖刺激对体外培养的小鼠肾足细胞鸟苷酸交换因子Sos2(Son of Sevenless homolog2)表达的影响,并初步探讨Sos2在高糖诱导足细胞损伤中的作用及其可能的分子机制。方法:通过免疫荧光染色及激光共聚焦显微镜观察Sos2在糖尿病肾病患者足细胞中的表达;体外培养小鼠永生化足细胞,以高糖(30 mmol/L葡萄糖)刺激足细胞48 h,采用RT-PCR、Western blot和免疫荧光检测高糖刺激下足细胞Sos2的mRNA及蛋白表达;采用Western bolt实验、免疫荧光及划痕实验检测Sos2过表达及沉默后podocin的表达、足细胞的活动性及NFATc1的入核情况;并采用RT-PCR检测NFATc1下游目的基因转录情况。结果:Sos2在糖尿病肾病患者的足细胞及高糖刺激体外培养的足细胞中表达显著降低(P 0. 05);沉默Sos2后,足细胞标志蛋白podocin表达显著降低,足细胞活动性增加,NFATc1入核增加,NFATc1下游目的基因转录增加(P 0. 05);与之相反,过表达Sos2组podocin表达显著增高,足细胞的活动性降低,NFATc1的入核减少,NFATc1下游目的基因转录降低(P 0. 05)。结论:Sos2可能通过抑制NFATc1入核而减轻糖尿病肾病足细胞损伤。     

Evidence for a GABA-mediated cerebellar inhibition of the inferior olive in the cat

Summary 1. Climbing fibres were activated by peripheral nerve stimulation at high frequencies (>3 Hz) for 15–25 s and then at 0.9 Hz for about 1 min. The high frequency activation induced a post-conditioning inhibition, lasting up to about 1 min, of climbing fibre responses recorded from the cerebellar surface. 2. Electrolytic lesions were made in the superior cerebellar peduncle (brachium conjunctivum). After the lesion, the post-conditioning inhibition was completely eliminated. 3. Injections of the GABA-receptor blocker bicuculline methiodide into the inferior olive reversibly blocked the post-conditioning inhibition. 4. The results support the hypothesis proposed by Andersson and Hesslow (1987a), that post-conditioning inhibition is mediated by a GABA-ergic interposito-olivary pathway.     

Effects of long-term phasic electrical stimulation on denervated soleus muscle: guinea-pig contrasted with rat

Guinea-pig soleus muscles were denervated and electrically stimulated for periods of 43 to 66 days. Stimuli were in 1 s bursts of 40 Hz pulses, repeated every 5 min. Other guinea-pigs were denervated for 82 days without stimulation and, in a third group, the soleus muscle was necrotized and allowed to regenerate without reinnervation for 13--15 days. Isometric and isotonic recordings were made in vivo. Denervated guinea-pig muscles were embedded in epoxy resin for light and electron microscopy. Chronic stimulation of denervated guinea-pig soleus had no effects on the prolonged twitch or on reduced maximal shortening velocity, maximal rate of rise of tension and tetanic force. This contrasts with the slow-to-fast conversion produced by denervation and denervation-stimulation of rat soleus. Loss of force was much greater in rat than guinea-pig after denervation, and chronic stimulation increased force in rat to the same level as in guinea-pig after denervation (with or without stimulation). Eighty-day denervated guinea-pig soleus did not reveal those morphological signs of fibre breakdown and regeneration which are prominent in denervated rat soleus muscles. Those changes in rat resembled aneurally regenerated muscles in several aspects, especially the increased incidence of fibres with internal myo- nuclei which did not appear in guinea-pig soleus after denervation. Aneurally regenerated guinea-pig soleus became fast like aneurally regenerated rat muscle. Our data are compatible with the hypothesis that slow-to-fast transformation of denervated rat soleus is not directly brought about by chronic stimulation but by de-novo formation of fast-contracting regenerated fibres. The persistence of fibrillation in guinea- pig but not rat after denervation may account for the species difference This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.