精神分裂症认知功能障碍功能磁共振成像研究的进展

精神分裂症是一种使人类严重丧失社会生活功能的疾病,影响了1%的世界人口,发病率和死亡率较高[1-2].精神分裂症通常发生在青春期或成年早期,约70%转为慢性精神分裂症[3].精神分裂症患者存在严重的认知功能障碍,疾病改变了患者的大脑结构和功能,对人的思维、注意力和协调性方面有很大影响[4],主要表现在注意、记忆和执行功能等方面[5].随着神经功能影像学的发展,很多功能影像相关的技术成为研究精神分裂症的重要方法.最初,科学家们利用功能影像学研究精神分裂症认知功能障碍与大脑各个脑功能区域的联系,试图通过建立多个脑区之间广泛地功能连接来更好地解释精神分裂症患者混乱的认知功能.功能磁共振成像(Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging,fMRI)作为一种比较成熟的功能影像技术,广泛地被科研人员应用于精神分裂症患者认知功能损害的研究中,并取得了一定成果.这些成果为我们提供了对精神分裂患者的大脑进行更细微研究的一些理解,现将研究进展综述如下.     

中国精神分裂症的神经影像学研究进展(英文)

自Hounsfield于1972年首次报道X线计算机断层扫描(CT)后,神经影像学技术应用持续发展,用于研究大脑结构、功能和生物化学等方面。本文就中国近年来对精神分裂症结构性和功能性神经影像学的研究做了一个概述并且用4个表格来描述中国大陆所有相关研究。国内在精神科领域使用神经影像学技术的首个研究报告可追溯至1983年,研究发现30%精神分裂症患者存在脑萎缩。上世纪90年代国内逐渐出现功能神经影像学研究,并且快速发展。近年来,脑结构网络和脑功能网络研究已成为中国神经影像学研究的一个热门话题。     

精神分裂症脑源性神经营养因子和海马结构改变的关联

精神分裂症是一种严重精神病,以幻觉、思维及行为紊乱和社会功能退化为特征,患病率为1％,给个人、家庭及社会带来极大负担。精神分裂症的研究涉及遗传、神经生化、病理生理、影像学等多个领域,但其确切病因及病理机制目前仍不明确。脑影像学研究表明,精神分裂症患者存在大脑结构异常,主要表现为侧脑室扩大和脑体积减小。     

精神分裂症有关神经生物学发现及其对现象学发生机制的意义

有关精神分裂症的神经生物学研究诸如脑神经结构及脑生物电等方面已经取得重要进展，众多研究证实患者左侧大脑颞叶存在结构和功能异常。本文探讨这些研究成果所揭示的脑异常病损与精神分裂症现象学特征的关系。     

精神分裂症脑神经影像学及神经病理学的研究进展

精神分裂症的病因及发病机制迄今未明。影像学、神经化学、分子生物学等方法的快速发展和应用 ,使人们能够从宏观及微观两个水平 ,对精神分裂症大脑的神经病理学改变有更多认识 ,从而不断加深对精神分裂症病因及发病机制的理解。我们结合精神分裂症脑影像学和尸检大脑神经病理学研究的文献复习 ,对其研究进展作简要论述。一、大体结构改变1 脑室和脑皮质 :精神分裂症患者的脑室扩大和脑体积减小 ,是有关的影像学研究结果一致性很高的发现[1,2 ] 。如在超过 10 0篇CT的研究中 ,75 %报道精神分裂症患者有侧脑室扩大 ,83%报道第 3脑室扩大 ,6 …     

诱发电位在精神分裂症中的相关应用及研究新进展

脑诱发电位有很多经典成分，在精神分裂症研究中有一些特征。抗精神病药可能会对诱发电位产生影响，但确切机制不清。诱发电位与脑神经影像学联合应用，更有可能清楚知道精神分裂症患者脑结构和功能何处异常以及异常是如何发生的。     

精神分裂症神经电生理的研究进展

精神分裂症是一种病因不明、预后欠佳的复杂重性精神疾病,目前诊断精神分裂症主要依据临床症状,电生理及影像学特征不能作为诊断依据,但大量研究结果提示,精神分裂症患者脑结构和功能异常是发病的病理生理基础。随着脑成像技术的发展,特别是当前功能神经影像学已成为精神分裂症研究的热点之一,多种设备联合检测技术的运用,使精神疾病的研究将进入了多学科和多模态的发展阶段［1］。功能神经影像学主要包括脑电图（EEG ）／脑电地形图（BEAM ）及诱发电位、多导睡眠图（PSG）、脑电超慢涨落图（EFG ）、脑磁图（M EG ）及磁源性成像（MSI）、功能磁共振成像（fMRI）、正电子发射计算机断层显像（PE T ）和单光子发射计算机断层成像（SPECT ）,均从不同角度研究大脑的功能［2］。fMRI、PET及SPECT 检测均依赖局部脑血流,是神经元活动的间接反应,受时间分辨率不高等因素的限制。EEG／BEAM 、诱发电位、PSG、EFG、M EG 及MSI均属于神经电生理检测方法。EEG／BEAM 具有可长时间连续监测和成本低廉等优势,在精神分裂症的研究中具有重要价值;PSG 能够准确检测精神分裂症患者睡眠障碍的严重程度;EFG 是一种用于精神科的新技术,具有广阔前景;M EG的时间、空间分辨率高,干扰少,具有无法比拟的优势［2－3］。目前,精神分裂症神经电生理的相关研究较少,现对此复习文献并综述如下。     

精神分裂症早期人群的丘脑磁共振影像学研究进展

越来越多的证据表明丘脑功能和结构的异常可能在精神分裂症的病生理机制中扮演了重要的角色,参与了疾病核心症状的发生发展。大量研究指出丘脑的神经影像学指标有望成为预测疾病发展的生物学标志物,为精神分裂症早期的临床诊疗提供新的思路。因此,本文对丘脑在首发精神分裂症患者和精神分裂症高危人群中的脑影像学研究进展进行综述。     

精神分裂症患者血脑屏障损伤研究进展

大量研究显示精神分裂症患者存在广泛的脑结构损伤及功能紊乱,另有研究表明,精神分裂症患者可能存在血脑屏障受损,包括神经影像学等一些新的技术已被用于血脑屏障损伤的相关研究中,但应用于精神分裂症中研究的仍较少。我们旨在针对精神分裂症患者血脑屏障损伤的检测方法、损伤机制、免疫学及与抗精神病药影响有关方面的研究进行综述,以进一步理解血脑屏障损伤在精神分裂症发病机制、诊断及治疗方面的作用。     

精神病临床高危灰质结构的研究进展

精神分裂症是一种大脑结构和功能异常的严重精神障碍。早期发现及干预处于精神分 裂症前驱期的个体可极大改善其预后。目前,对精神病临床高危（CHR）进行早期识别的客观指标较少。 随着神经影像学技术的发展,许多研究致力于通过大脑结构磁共振成像寻找 CHR 脑灰质生物标志物。 相关研究报道了 CHR 脑皮层及皮层下影像学的异常,但少有一致结论。现就 CHR 结构磁共振成像的研 究进展进行综述,旨在为临床实践及未来研究提供参考。     

Epilepsy and anomalies of neuronal migration: MRI and clinical aspects

Neuronal migration disorders are the result of disturbed brain development. In such disorders, neurons are abnormally located. In diagnosing these conditions, magnetic resonance imaging is superior to any other imaging technique. This enables us to improve our knowledge of the clinical correlates of neuronal migration. With reference to migrational disorder, a retrospective study of all 303 patients with epileptic seizures referred for magnetic resonance imaging during a 3-year period was performed, 13 patients (aged 12-41, mean age 27) were identified. They represent 4.3% of the entire study group. Of the patients with known epilepsy, 6.7% and of the mentally retarded, 13.7% had migrational disorders. Four patients had schizencephaly as the dominant finding, one was classified as hemimegalencephaly, 2 had isolated heterotopias, and 6 had localized pachy- and/or poly-microgyria. The clinical pictures are complex. Ectopias of grey matter are recognised foci of epilepsy, but from an epileptological and a clinical viewpoint little attention has been given to these disorders. The present study shows that malmigration is not rare in epilepsy patients, especially not in the mentally retarded.     

Classification of methods in transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) and evolving strategy from historical approaches to contemporary innovations

Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) encompasses all methods of non-invasive current application to the brain used in research and clinical practice. We present the first comprehensive and technical review, explaining the evolution of tES in both terminology and dosage over the past 100 years of research to present day. Current transcranial Pulsed Current Stimulation (tPCS) approaches such as Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation (CES) descended from Electrosleep (ES) through Cranial Electro-stimulation Therapy (CET), Transcerebral Electrotherapy (TCET), and NeuroElectric Therapy (NET) while others like Transcutaneous Cranial Electrical Stimulation (TCES) descended from Electroanesthesia (EA) through Limoge, and Interferential Stimulation. Prior to a contemporary resurgence in interest, variations of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation were explored intermittently, including Polarizing current, Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation (GVS), and Transcranial Micropolarization. The development of these approaches alongside Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) and pharmacological developments are considered. Both the roots and unique features of contemporary approaches such as transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) and transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS) are discussed. Trends and incremental developments in electrode montage and waveform spanning decades are presented leading to the present day. Commercial devices, seminal conferences, and regulatory decisions are noted. We conclude with six rules on how increasing medical and technological sophistication may now be leveraged for broader success and adoption of tES.     

Hepatic Considerations in the Use of Antiepileptic Drugs

Summary: Virtually all of the major antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) can cause hepatotoxicity, although fatal hepatic reactions are rare. The mechanisms, incidences, and risk profiles for such reactions differ from drug to drug. With carbamazepine and phenytoin, hepatotoxicity may be due to drug hypersensitivity. Although the profiles of patients at risk have not been well-defined for these two antiepileptic drugs, it would appear from reports in the literature that older adolescents and adults are at higher risk than children of developing serious or fatal hepatotoxicity. Once hepatotoxicity develops, mortality rates are 10–38% with phenytoin and 25% for carbamazepine. The risk profile for valproate fatal hepatotoxicity has been more clearly defined. Those at primary risk of fatal hepatic dysfunction are children under the age of 2 years who are receiving multiple anticonvulsants and also have significant medical problems in addition to severe epilepsy. The risk is considerably lower for patients over the age of 2 years on valproate monotherapy. In contrast to the risk profile with other AEDs, adults receiving valproate as monotherapy have the lowest risk of hepatotoxicity. Fatal hepatic dysfunction coincident with valproate may be the result of aberrant drug metabolism. Concomitant use of AEDs that induce microsomal P450 enzymes (e.g., phenytoin and phenobarbital) may enhance the production of a toxic metabolite, and hence the greater risk of hepatotoxicity with polypharmacy.     

Vascular Malformations and Epilepsy: Clinical Considerations and Basic Mechanisms

Summary: Vascular malformations (VMs) are associated with epilepsy. The natural history of the various VMs, clinical presentation, and tendency to provoke epilepsy determine treatment strategies. Investigations have probed the mechanisms of epileptogenesis associated with these lesions. Electrophysiologic changes are associated with epileptogenic cortex adjacent to VMs. Putative pathophysiologic mechanisms of epileptogenesis include neuronal cell loss, glial proliferation and abnormal glial physiology, altered neurotransmitter levels, free radical formation, and aberrant second messenger physiology.     

Neonatal Seizures: Problems in Diagnosis and Classification

Summary: The clinical identification of neonatal seizures is critical for the recognition of brain dysfunction; however, diagnosis is often difficult because of the poorly organized and varied nature of these behaviors. Current classification systems are limited in their ability to communicate motor, autonomic, and electroencephalo-graphic features of seizures precisely and to provide a basis for uniform effective diagnosis, therapy, and determination of prognosis. Recent investigations of neonates, utilizing bedside electroencephalographic/polygraphic/ video monitoring techniques, have provided the basis for improved diagnosis and classification of seizures in the newborn. These studies have demonstrated that not all clinical phenomena currently considered to be seizures require electrocortical epileptiform activity for their initiation or elaboration. In addition, the specific clinical character of the phenomena considered to be seizures, the clinical state of the infant, and the character of the EEG indicate the probable pathophysiological mechanisms involved and suggest probable etiologies, prognosis, and therapy. Similarities between animal models that demonstrate reflex physiology and neonates with motor automatisms and tonic posturing suggest that these clinical behaviors may not be epileptic in origin but, rather, primitive movements of progression and posture mediated by brainstem mechanisms. Although not all clinical behaviors currently considered to be neonatal seizures may have similar pathophysiological mechanisms, they are clinically significant because they all indicate brain dysfunction.     

Valproate Monotherapy in the Management of Generalized and Partial Seizures

Summary: For decades, therapeutic tradition has promoted the concept of polypharmacy in the management of epilepsy. In recent years, however, studies have shown that, for most patients, monotherapy can provide comparable or better seizure control than administration of multiple anticonvulsants, while diminishing the potential for adverse reactions, drug interactions, and poor compliance. Valproate is an important monotherapeutic agent that is highly effective in the control of idiopathic primary and secondarily generalized epilepsies, and partial seizures that do not generalize. Comparative studies have found that valproate is at least as effective as phenytoin and carbamazepine in the treatment of generalized and partial seizures. Given the similar efficacy, other factors such as pharmacokinetics and side effects may therefore determine anticonvulsant selection for monotherapy.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy and Utilization in Children

Summary: Carbamazepine is effective for preventing partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures in children. Although absence epilepsies are more common in children than adults, an estimated 80% of children with epilepsy have seizure types or epilepsies that are potentially responsive to carbamazepine. The differential diagnosis of ictal staring is an especially important issue in children because absence and atypical absence seizures are more prevalent in children than adults. Age-related pharmacokinetic differences and drug interactions are major considerations in children. On average, children have higher clearance rates of carbamazepine, shorter half-lives, and higher ratios of carbamazepine-10, 11-epoxide to carbamazepine than adults. In addition, children with severe epilepsy are more likely to require multiple-drug therapy, which can lead to complex drug interactions. When carbamazepine is administered along with valproate, drug protein binding interactions can cause intermittent side effects.     

Un nouveau cadre conceptuel de travail pour la psychiatrie

In an attempt to place psychiatric thinking and the training of future psychiatrists more centrally into the context of modern biology, the author outlines the beginnings of a new intellectual framework for psychiatry that derives from current biological thinking about the relationship of mind to brain. The purpose of this framework is twofold. First, it is designed to emphasize that the professional requirements for future psychiatrists will demand a greater knowledge of the structure and functioning of the brain than is currently available in most training programs. Second, it is designed to illustrate that the unique domain which psychiatry occupies within academic medicine, the analysis of the interaction between social and biological determinants of behavior, can best be studied by also having a full understanding of the biological components of behavior.