儿童重型开放性颅脑损伤颅骨处理的经验

目的探讨儿童重型开放性颅脑损伤的治疗。方法回顾分析14例重型开放性颅脑损伤患儿临床资料。结果14例患儿均急诊行开颅清创、颅骨碎片一期植入成形术，痊愈出院，颅骨成形满意。结论儿童重型开放性颅脑损伤病情变化快，临床表现严重，在确保生命的同时力争颅骨碎片一期植入成形。     

标准大骨瓣减压术治疗重型颅脑损伤的体会

目的探讨标准大骨瓣减压术治疗重型颅脑损伤的临床效果。方法回顾性分析2007年2月至2011年2月用标准大骨瓣减压术治疗68例重型颅脑损伤患者的临床资料。结果 68例重型颅脑损伤患者中,出院后随访6~12个月,按GOS分级,Ⅰ级15例,Ⅱ级4例,Ⅲ级5例,Ⅳ级11例,Ⅴ级33例。结论标准大骨瓣减压术是治疗重型颅脑损伤的重要方法。     

侧脑室外引流在救治急性重型原发性颅脑损伤中的应用

目的 总结快速细孔钻颅侧脑室外引流术治疗无开颅手术治疗指征的急性重型原发性颅脑损伤的临床效果与体会.方法 对42例急性重型原发性颅脑损伤患者(特重型24例,重型18例)应用快速细孔钻颅侧脑室外引流救治的临床资料进行回顾性总结分析.结果 出院时42例患者中ADL评级达到Ⅰ～Ⅲ级29例(69％),重残(Ⅳ～Ⅴ级)6例(14％),死亡7例(17％);其中特重型原发性颅脑损伤死亡6例(25％).结论 Dandy's钻颅需耗时60 min左右,且必须在手术室完成;快速细孔钻颅术在患者床边3-5 min即可完成,能迅速有效地阻断急性颅内压增高的恶性循环,从而降低重型原发性颅脑损伤致残率及病死率,是急性重型颅脑原发性损伤的有效治疗方法.     

重型颅脑损伤与继发性脑梗死的预防及治疗

目的分析重型颅脑损伤继发脑梗死的原因，探讨重型颅脑损伤继发脑梗死的预防及治疗。方法回顾我院1996～2004年收治的重型颅脑损伤病人在救治中继发脑梗死的临床特点及预后。结果480例重型颅脑损伤的病人继发脑梗死42例．继发脑梗死的发生率占8．8％，其中成人组432例发生脑梗死34例，占7．9％；儿童组病例48例，发生继发脑梗死8例，占17％。儿童组病例继发脑梗死的例数明显高于成人组。结论重型颅脑损伤病人由于脑损伤的病理生理过程继发脑梗死外，在治疗过程中一些治疗因素也可引发脑梗死。脑梗死的发生加重脑组织的损伤，影响预后。     

重型颅脑损伤26例报告

目的 探讨重型颅脑损伤的治疗方法,以提高治愈率,降低死亡率。方法 回顾性分析26例重型颅脑损伤的受伤原因、损伤程度、治疗方法。结果 以格拉斯哥结果分级法(GOS)评定,Ⅰ级14例,其中合并胸腔出血1例,腹腔出血2例,胸腹腔均出血2例;Ⅱ级0例;Ⅲ级2例;Ⅳ级3例;Ⅴ级7例。结论 颅脑损伤程度越重,死亡率越高,如何提高其治愈率仍然是外科的难题之一。     

标准大骨瓣开颅减压术治疗重型颅脑损伤和大面积脑梗死(附49例报告)

目的探讨标准大骨瓣减压术治疗重型颅脑损伤和大面积脑梗死的临床效果。方法回顾性的分析2006年1月至2011年1月标准大骨瓣开颅减压术治疗的38例重型颅脑损伤和11例大面积脑梗死患者临床资料。结果出院时按GOS分级,38例重型颅脑损伤患者中,GOSⅠ级15例,Ⅱ~Ⅲ级4例,Ⅳ~Ⅴ级19例。11例大面积脑梗死患者中,GOSⅠ级4例,Ⅱ~Ⅲ级1例,Ⅳ~Ⅴ级6例。结论标准大骨瓣减压术是治疗重型颅脑损伤和大面积脑梗塞的有效方法。     

重型颅脑损伤的亚低温治疗

目的分析92例重型颅脑损伤(GCS≤8分)病人的亚低温治疗体会。方法对我科1998年3月至2002年12月亚低温治疗重型颅脑损伤病人进行回顾性分析。结果92例重型颅脑损伤病人存活66例,死亡26例;其中恢复良好60例,中、重残疾6例。无植物生存。结论临床应用亚低温治疗重型颅脑损伤病人,能显著改善重型颅脑损伤病人的预后。     

汶川地震后颅脑损伤儿童36例临床分析

目的 探讨汶川大地震后儿童颅脑损伤的临床特点.方法 收集汶川大地震后四川大学华西医院神经外科住院的36例地震致颅脑损伤儿童的临床资料(男21例,女15例;年龄3月～14岁.平均年龄8.1岁;轻型30例,中型4例,重型2例;建筑物倒塌砸伤30例,切割伤3例,逃生跌伤3例),对其伤情分类、致伤原因、治疗方法 及预后等进行回顾性分析.结果 36例颅脑损伤儿童中出院(或转院)时GOS评分为恢复良好33例,中残3例.结论 汶川大地震后建筑物倒塌砸伤为主要致伤原因,颅脑损伤儿童以轻型居多,要注意颅骨骨折的治疗,多数可恢复良好.     

重型颅脑损伤后脑梗死的临床探讨

目的讨论重型颅脑损伤后出现脑梗死的原因及治疗方法。方法分析17例经影像学检查证实的重型颅脑损伤后出现脑梗死病例的临床表现、影像学结果、临床治疗。结果治愈6例，重残3例，轻残4例，死亡4例。结论重型颅脑损伤后出现脑梗死死亡率及致残率高，抢救困难，惟有早期预防，及早手术，解除脑疝，才能减少脑梗死出现，提高治愈率。     

重型颅脑损伤后脑积水的早期诊断及治疗探讨

目的 探讨重型颅脑损伤后脑积水的早期诊断及治疗的临床效果。方法 对21例重型颅脑损伤后脑积水的临床表现、影像学资料及治疗方法进行回顾性分析。结果 治疗后按GOS标准，恢复良好19例，中残1例，重残1例。结论 重型颅脑损伤后脑积水的早期诊断，及时实施脑室-腹腔分流术，术后积极进行综合治疗是改善患者预后的重要因素。     

Hepatic Considerations in the Use of Antiepileptic Drugs

Summary: Virtually all of the major antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) can cause hepatotoxicity, although fatal hepatic reactions are rare. The mechanisms, incidences, and risk profiles for such reactions differ from drug to drug. With carbamazepine and phenytoin, hepatotoxicity may be due to drug hypersensitivity. Although the profiles of patients at risk have not been well-defined for these two antiepileptic drugs, it would appear from reports in the literature that older adolescents and adults are at higher risk than children of developing serious or fatal hepatotoxicity. Once hepatotoxicity develops, mortality rates are 10–38% with phenytoin and 25% for carbamazepine. The risk profile for valproate fatal hepatotoxicity has been more clearly defined. Those at primary risk of fatal hepatic dysfunction are children under the age of 2 years who are receiving multiple anticonvulsants and also have significant medical problems in addition to severe epilepsy. The risk is considerably lower for patients over the age of 2 years on valproate monotherapy. In contrast to the risk profile with other AEDs, adults receiving valproate as monotherapy have the lowest risk of hepatotoxicity. Fatal hepatic dysfunction coincident with valproate may be the result of aberrant drug metabolism. Concomitant use of AEDs that induce microsomal P450 enzymes (e.g., phenytoin and phenobarbital) may enhance the production of a toxic metabolite, and hence the greater risk of hepatotoxicity with polypharmacy.     

Vascular Malformations and Epilepsy: Clinical Considerations and Basic Mechanisms

Summary: Vascular malformations (VMs) are associated with epilepsy. The natural history of the various VMs, clinical presentation, and tendency to provoke epilepsy determine treatment strategies. Investigations have probed the mechanisms of epileptogenesis associated with these lesions. Electrophysiologic changes are associated with epileptogenic cortex adjacent to VMs. Putative pathophysiologic mechanisms of epileptogenesis include neuronal cell loss, glial proliferation and abnormal glial physiology, altered neurotransmitter levels, free radical formation, and aberrant second messenger physiology.     

Diagnostic Difficulties and Treatment Implications

Summary: Differentiation between types of epileptic seizures has been aided in recent years by the introduction of intensive neurodiagnostic techniques and the development of increasingly detailed classification systems. Paradoxically, these developments have not simplified the task of matching the appropriate antiepileptic drug to a particular seizure type. It is reasonable to assume that anticonvulsant drugs will have different effects on different types of seizures, but faulty, circular reasoning can enter the picture if one also assumes that responses of seizures to different drugs signify different seizure types. There are several examples of differential diagnoses that can fall prey to this problem, including the diagnosis between partial seizures with secondary generalization and generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and the diagnosis between complex partial seizures and absence seizures with automatisms, among others. Considerations of etiology in future classification systems can further complicate the problem: should one then choose an anticonvulsant drug on the basis of individual seizure type or on the basis of the type of epilepsy? Ramifications of this issue extend even to the drug approval process. Official sanction is not given for use of a drug for a seizure type not included in the original efficacy studies, even if later scientific evidence shows that seizure type to be related to a type that is included. New trials must be undertaken. These problems arise from how we choose to classify seizures.     

Cognitive Dysfunction Associated with Antiepileptic Drug Therapy

Summary: Epilepsy is frequently associated with cognitive dysfunction. However, the reasons for this correlation are unclear. Possible influential factors include patient age; duration, frequency, etiology, and type of seizures; hereditary factors; psychosocial issues; and antiepileptic drug (AED) therapy. Whereas many of these factors are beyond the physician's control, AED therapy is one element that can be addressed in treatment decisions by recognizing the potential cognitive effects of particular AEDs. For example, phenobarbital impairs memory and concentration; phenytoin affects attention, problem solving ability, and performance of visuomotor tasks. In contrast, carbamazepine may affect concentration, while valproate would appear to have minimal effects on cognition. Moreover, cognitive effects of AEDs are amplified with coadministration of multiple anticonvulsants (polytherapy). A review of studies on the cognitive effects of monotherapy with AEDs, as opposed to those of polytherapy, provides evidence that drug-related cognitive dysfunction can be reversed if patients are switched to a simpler therapeutic regimen. Future research should be directed toward developing reliable measures for assessing and monitoring cognition, and understanding the particular cognitive side effects of each AED. Physicians also need to revise their opinions about which side effects are "tolerable" for epileptic patients.     

Epilepsy and anomalies of neuronal migration: MRI and clinical aspects

Neuronal migration disorders are the result of disturbed brain development. In such disorders, neurons are abnormally located. In diagnosing these conditions, magnetic resonance imaging is superior to any other imaging technique. This enables us to improve our knowledge of the clinical correlates of neuronal migration. With reference to migrational disorder, a retrospective study of all 303 patients with epileptic seizures referred for magnetic resonance imaging during a 3-year period was performed, 13 patients (aged 12-41, mean age 27) were identified. They represent 4.3% of the entire study group. Of the patients with known epilepsy, 6.7% and of the mentally retarded, 13.7% had migrational disorders. Four patients had schizencephaly as the dominant finding, one was classified as hemimegalencephaly, 2 had isolated heterotopias, and 6 had localized pachy- and/or poly-microgyria. The clinical pictures are complex. Ectopias of grey matter are recognised foci of epilepsy, but from an epileptological and a clinical viewpoint little attention has been given to these disorders. The present study shows that malmigration is not rare in epilepsy patients, especially not in the mentally retarded.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy and Utilization in Children

Summary: Carbamazepine is effective for preventing partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures in children. Although absence epilepsies are more common in children than adults, an estimated 80% of children with epilepsy have seizure types or epilepsies that are potentially responsive to carbamazepine. The differential diagnosis of ictal staring is an especially important issue in children because absence and atypical absence seizures are more prevalent in children than adults. Age-related pharmacokinetic differences and drug interactions are major considerations in children. On average, children have higher clearance rates of carbamazepine, shorter half-lives, and higher ratios of carbamazepine-10, 11-epoxide to carbamazepine than adults. In addition, children with severe epilepsy are more likely to require multiple-drug therapy, which can lead to complex drug interactions. When carbamazepine is administered along with valproate, drug protein binding interactions can cause intermittent side effects.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy in Adults With Partial and Generalized Tonic-Clonic Seizures

Summary: Carbamazepine and phenytoin are drugs of choice in initial monotherapy for adult partial and secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures. These designations reflect the results of the Veterans Administration Epilepsy Cooperative Study Group of 1985. An earlier comparative study of carbamazepine and phenytoin by Ramsay and associates found both drugs equally effective in controlling new-onset seizures. Among the advantages of carbamazepine is that it causes relatively few cognitive and dysmorphic side effects. Its disadvantages are its unavailability in parenteral formulation and its metabolic autoinduction. The latter must be compensated for by planned dosage increases to maintain therapeutic plasma steady-state levels during the first 2 or 3 months of treatment. Carbamazepine is judged a drug of choice in the treatment of these secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and the drug of choice in children, adolescents, and women susceptible to the dysmorphic side effects associated with other anticonvulsant agents.     

Etiologic and Preventive Aspects of Epilepsy in the Child–Bridging the Gap Between Laboratory and Clinic

Summary: Four broad categories of basic phenomena are pertinent to developing ways to prevent epilepsy. These include mechanisms of epileptogenesis, ictal initiation and temporary entrainment by the seizure discharge of normally functioning brain, seizure propagation, and control mechanisms that function both to restrain the cascade of epileptic events culminating in a seizure and to arrest the epileptic event and restore the interictal state. In newborns and children, hypoxia-ischemia is a major factor leading to epileptogenesis, and several schemes are proposed to classify, quantify, and prevent hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. Control mechanisms must be better understood in order to develop prophylactic recommendations for epilepsy, and an experimental model of "kindling antagonism" may increase our understanding of these. Programs of prevention of seizures in children will evolve only if basic researchers and clinicians work productively together to develop an adequate understanding of factors important in epileptogenesis and antiepileptogenic control mechanisms.     

Predisposing and Causative Factors in Childhood Epilepsy

Summary: We review information from large studies of defined populations, examining the role of known factors and especially of prenatal and perinatal factors in contributing to nonfebrile seizure disorders of early childhood. We depend especially, but not exclusively, on the recently completed analyses from the Collaborative Perinatal Project of the National Institute of Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke, the NCPP. About 4% of children in the NCPP who had at least one non-febrile nonsymptomatic seizure by the age of 7 years had a previous seizure during acute neurologic illness, such as meningitis or during the acute illness after trauma. Many such seizures should potentially be preventable. Of children with seizures, 10% had had a neonatal seizure and 13% had had a febrile seizure. Among the hundreds of prenatal and perinatal factors explored as predictors of childhood seizure disorders, the principal predictors identified were congenital malformations of the fetus, cerebral and noncerebral; family history of certain neurologic disorders; and neonatal seizures. In agreement with the British National Child Development Study, labor and delivery factors in the NCPP appeared to contribute very little to childhood seizure disorders. Maldevelopment, rather than damage at birth to an initially intact nervous system, appeared to be the more common mechanism. Most seizure disorders of early childhood remained unexplained by the large set of prenatal and perinatal characteristics examined.     

Classification of methods in transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) and evolving strategy from historical approaches to contemporary innovations

Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) encompasses all methods of non-invasive current application to the brain used in research and clinical practice. We present the first comprehensive and technical review, explaining the evolution of tES in both terminology and dosage over the past 100 years of research to present day. Current transcranial Pulsed Current Stimulation (tPCS) approaches such as Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation (CES) descended from Electrosleep (ES) through Cranial Electro-stimulation Therapy (CET), Transcerebral Electrotherapy (TCET), and NeuroElectric Therapy (NET) while others like Transcutaneous Cranial Electrical Stimulation (TCES) descended from Electroanesthesia (EA) through Limoge, and Interferential Stimulation. Prior to a contemporary resurgence in interest, variations of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation were explored intermittently, including Polarizing current, Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation (GVS), and Transcranial Micropolarization. The development of these approaches alongside Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) and pharmacological developments are considered. Both the roots and unique features of contemporary approaches such as transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) and transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS) are discussed. Trends and incremental developments in electrode montage and waveform spanning decades are presented leading to the present day. Commercial devices, seminal conferences, and regulatory decisions are noted. We conclude with six rules on how increasing medical and technological sophistication may now be leveraged for broader success and adoption of tES.