The versatility of the inter-costal artery perforator (ICAP) flaps.

INTRODUCTION: Anatomy and classification of intercostal perforator flaps in addition to our experience with will be demonstrated for different indications. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The intercostal vessels form an arcade between the aorta and the internal mammary vessels. Different pedicled perforator flaps can be raised on this neurovascular bundle to cover defects on the trunk. They are classified as following: dorsal intercostal artery perforator flap (DICAP); lateral intercostal artery perforator (LICAP); and anterior intercostal artery perforator (AICAP) flap. RESULTS: Between 2001 and 2004, 20 pedicled (ICAP) flaps were harvested in 16 patients. The indications were: immediate partial breast reconstruction in eight patients who had a quadrantectomy for breast cancer; midline back and sternal defects in three patients who had radical excisions for a dermatofibrosarcoma or malignant melanoma; and autologous breast augmentation (four bilateral and one unilateral flap) in five post-bariatric-surgery patients. The average flap dimension was 18 x 8 cm(2) (range 8 x 5-24 x 12 cm(2)). There were two DICAP flaps, two (AICAP) flaps and 16 (LICAP) flaps. All but two flaps were based on one perforator. Mean harvesting time was 45min for a single flap. Bilateral breast augmentation with LICAP flap necessitated longer operative time (range 2-3h) depending whether it was combined or not with mastopoexy. Complete flaps survival was obtained. All donor sites were closed primarily. CONCLUSION: The (ICAP) flaps provide valuable options in breast surgery; and for challenging defects on the trunk without sacrifice of the underlying muscle.     

Lateral intercostal artery perforator-based reverse thoracic flap for antecubital reconstruction

Pedicled flaps distant from the trunk are often used to reconstruct defects of the upper extremity. For this, various flaps have been described, with the groin flap being the most common. Recently, perforator flaps and perforator-based pedicled flaps have been described, that can be raised from the trunk for reconstruction of various defects. The lateral intercostal artery perforator (LICAP) flap, raised from the lateral and posterior thorax, has been used for chest reconstruction. Also LICAP flaps from the abdominal area were described in reconstruction of the upper extremity. In this paper we report a case where a LICAP-based thoracic flap was used for the reconstruction of the antecubital area of the upper extremity. This is the first report of the application of this flap to the upper extremity. The advantages of reverse LICAP flap from the posterolateral thoracic area are: (1) no kinking in the pedicle as it is not folded, especially for antecubital defects, (2) hairless skin from the midaxillary line area, (3) thinner flap compared to the abdominal area and (4) the scar is on the back of the patient in a more acceptable area.     

Lateral intercostal artery perforator flap used in salvage of exposed tissue expander of breast: case report

Management of an exposed tissue expander in breast reconstruction patients remains a challenging problem. For large defects that cannot be repaired primarily, local flap options are limited. In this case report, we describe the use of lateral intercostal artery perforator (LICAP) flap in salvage of an exposed tissue expander of a patient who had delayed immediate breast reconstruction after mastectomy. The postoperative recovery was uneventful and tissue expansion followed by radiotherapy was well tolerated by the flap. We believe this is the first article to describe the use of LICAP flap in salvage of an exposed tissue expander of the breast due to mastectomy flap necrosis in the early postoperative period.     

Extended locoregional use of intercostal artery perforator propeller flaps

Besides conventional flaps, intercostal artery perforator flaps have been reported to cover trunk defects. In this report the use of anterior intercostal artery perforator (AICAP) flap, lateral intercostal artery perforator (LICAP) flap and dorsal intercostal artery perforator (DICAP) flap for thoracic, abdominal, cervical, lumbar and sacral defects with larger dimensions and extended indications beyond the reported literature were reevaluated. Thirty‐nine patients underwent surgery between August 2012 and August 2014. The age of the patients ranged between 16 and 79 with a mean of 49 years. The distribution of defects were as follows; 12 thoracic, 8 parascapular, 3 cervical, 8 abdominal, 4 sacral and 4 lumbar. AICAP, LICAP and DICAP flaps were used for reconstruction. Fifty‐two ICAP flaps were performed on 39 patients. Flap dimensions ranged between 6 × 9 cm and 14 × 35 cm. Twenty‐six patients had single flap coverage and 13 patients had double flap coverage. Forty‐six flaps have been transferred as propeller flaps and 6 flaps have been transferred as perforator plus flap. Forty flaps (75%) went through transient venous congestion. In one DICAP flap, 30% of flap was lost. No infection, hematoma or seroma were observed in any patient. Follow‐up period ranged between 3 and 32 months with a mean of 9 months. The ICAP flaps provide reliable and versatile options in reconstructive surgery and can be used for challenging defects in trunk.     

The deep inferior epigastric perforator free flap for breast reconstruction

Deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) flap breast reconstruction is an improved method of autologous tissue breast reconstruction with minimal insult to the abdominal wall. This study summarizes the data collected on 148 consecutive DIEP flaps used for breast reconstruction in 109 patients. Of the patients, 90.7% had immediate breast reconstruction after mastectomy, 6.5% had secondary reconstruction, and 2.8% had bilateral reconstruction after having had a mastectomy and having a new primary cancer diagnosed in the remaining breast. A total of 78.7% patients underwent unilateral reconstruction, 21.3% underwent bilateral reconstruction, and 15.7% needed two flaps to make a single larger breast. There was one flap failure. Incidence of fat necrosis was 6.8% and incidence of incisional hernia was 1.4%. The advantages of a free transverse rectus abdominis musculocutaneous flap breast reconstruction are inherent in DIEP flap breast reconstruction. The increased technical effort for DIEP flap reconstruction is offset by the lesser insult to the abdominal wall with maintenance of the entire rectus abdominis muscle.     

Brustrekonstruktion mit gestielten Lappen

It is important for women with breast cancer undergoing mastectomy to make an informed decision about the options for breast reconstruction and to be provided with information about the techniques, advantages and disadvantages. After modified radical mastectomy breast reconstruction involves replacement of breast skin and volume and after skin-sparing mastectomy only the volume must be reconstructed. The most commonly used surgical techniques are expander implant reconstruction, latissimus dorsi myocutaneous flaps with or without implants and the use of lower abdominal tissue. Currently, the pedicled transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous (TRAM) flap is the standard method for autologous breast reconstruction after mastectomy and thoracic wall irradiation. In recent years microsurgical perforator flaps have gained in popularity because of the lower morbidity.     

Pedicled perforator flaps in breast reconstruction: a new concept.

INTRODUCTION: Pedicled perforator flaps have not been widely described for the breast. The aim of this study is to report our clinical experience with pedicled perforator flaps in breast reconstruction. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Between May 2000 and May 2003, pedicled perforator flaps were used in 31 patients. The indications were immediate partial breast reconstruction and thoracic reconstruction for carcinomatous mastitis or tumour recurrence. Perforators were identified by Doppler preoperatively. The Doppler-located thoracodorsal artery perforator (TDAP) or another perforator such as the intercostal artery perforator (ICAP) was looked for. If the perforators had good calibers, the flaps were then based solely on these perforators. If the perforators were tiny but pulsating, the TDAP flap was harvested as a muscle-sparing latissimus dorsi type I (MS-LD I) with a small piece of muscle (4x2 cm) included to protect the perforators. If the perforators were not-pulsating, a larger segment of the LD muscle was incorporated to include the maximum of perforators (MS-LD II flap). The nerve that innervates the rest of the LD muscle was always spared. If most of the LD was included in the flap, the flap was then classified as MS-LD III. RESULTS: The mean flap dimensions were 20x8 cm. Using this algorithm, the TDAP flap was harvested in 18 cases and the ICAP flap in three cases. In addition, there were 10 MS-LD flaps with a variable amount of muscle. In addition, one parascapular flap was dissected. A successful flap transfer was achieved in all but three patients, in whom limited partial necrosis occurred. Seroma was not encountered at the donor sites of the perforator flaps (0%) compared to four (40%) after a MS-LD flap. CONCLUSION: Our results show that pedicled perforator flaps are additional options for breast surgery and that they may be used whenever an adequate perforator can be found. This technique is safe and reliable if the algorithm described is used when choosing a flap.     

The lateral thoracodorsal flap as a salvage procedure for partial transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous or deep inferior epigastric perforator flap loss in breast reconstruction

The transverse rectus abdominis musculocutaneous flap and deep inferior epigastric perforator flap are the flaps of choice for autologous breast reconstruction. The better understanding of the vascular anatomy of these flaps has reduced the incidence of flap loss and fat necrosis, and positioning the flap's least vascularized zone laterally in the newly reconstructed breast may limit partial flap loss to that area. Still, the resulting defect of such partial loss remains a challenge. We introduce the use of the lateral thoracodorsal flap as an easy and straightforward salvage procedure in such cases and present the history of 4 of our patients with a mean age of 45 years to illustrate this use. The procedure can be done as early as 6 weeks after initial reconstruction, reducing the burden of daily wound care for the patient and offering her an immediate restoration of the lateral contour of the reconstructed breast.     

Soft tissue reconstruction with the superior gluteal artery perforator flap

The development of the perforator flap technique revolutionized the practice of soft tissue transfer. The main goal of this technique is muscle sparing at the donor site for function and strength. Meanwhile, this concept is being widely applied for reconstruction of tissues throughout the entire body. Perforator flaps are the ultimate upgrade of the well-known myocutaneous flaps. Theoretically, any myocutaneous flap can be harvested as a perforator flap if skin resurfacing is needed. Although the DIEP flap, the anterolateral thigh flap, and the TAP flap are probably more frequently used for breast, trunk, and upper and lower limb reconstruction, as well as head and neck reconstruction, the SGAP flap takes its own position in the large group of perforator flaps and has its own specific indications.     

Spontaneous reinnervation of deep inferior epigastric artery perforator flaps after secondary breast reconstruction.

The deep inferior epigastric artery perforator (DIEAP) flap is the gold standard of free flaps in breast reconstruction. However, until now little attention has been paid to reinnervation of the flap. The aim of this study was to examine the spontaneous reinnervation of the DIEAP flap after breast reconstruction. The study was cross-sectional, and included 29 women who had all previously had secondary reconstruction with a DIEAP flap after mastectomy for breast cancer. Pressure thresholds were analysed on the skin island of the flap using Semmes-Weinstein monofilaments. The measurements showed measurable sensation in 29 of the 30 flaps. Nine patients had normal or diminished light touch in one or more areas. We also found significant better pressure sensitivity when the medial was compared to the lateral side and the inferior to the superior side of the flap. Our data showed that DIEAP flaps reinnervate after breast reconstruction although there is no sensory nerve repair. We suggest that nerve ingrowth takes place from the sides and this seems to be more pronounced in the inferomedial part of the flap.     

Simultaneous bilateral breast reconstruction with superior gluteal artery perforator (SGAP) flaps

The superior gluteal artery perforator (SGAP) flap is a useful technique for restoration of the breast after mastectomy. If appropriately planned, the soft-tissue envelope supplied by the superior gluteal artery perforator vessels can be harvested with minimal donor site morbidity and often results in a highly esthetic restoration of the breasts. Dissection of the flap is performed with complete preservation of gluteus maximus muscle function. The resulting vascular pedicle obtained via dissection through the muscle is longer than that of gluteal musculocutaneous flaps and affords the surgeon the luxury of avoiding vein grafts in the anastomotic phase of surgery.Despite these advantages, use of the SGAP flap is not popular among reconstructive surgeons. Many practitioners are not familiar with the vascular anatomy of the gluteal area and may not be comfortable with the dissection of the parent vessels or lack the desire to practice microsurgery. On the other hand, our group has reported the largest experience to date with this method of breast reconstruction and has found the SGAP flap to be a reliable and safe method of autologous breast restoration in unilateral absence of the breast. Although the indications to perform single-stage gluteal tissue transplantation for bilateral breast restoration are uncommon, they do occasionally arise in clinical practice. We have carried out concurrent bilateral breast reconstruction using SGAP flaps on 6 patients with acceptable overall morbidity. All flaps went on to survive and resulted in highly esthetic restorations of the breast. Though a challenging undertaking, in-unison transfer of bilateral SGAP flaps serves as a useful option for a subset of patients desiring 1-stage bilateral breast reconstruction.     

应用肋间后动脉穿支皮瓣修复微囊型淋巴管畸形切除后的大面积缺损

目的 探讨微囊型淋巴管畸形（LMs）手术切除的可行性,并对肋间后动脉穿支（LICAP）皮瓣修复微囊型LMs切除后的大面积缺损的有效性进行评价。方法 2009年1月至2012年12月,对8例13-22岁腋胸侧壁微囊型LMs患者,应用MRI和B超确定病变切除的范围和层次,对彻底切除后均遗留的腋窝、胸侧壁皮肤组织缺损,应用LICAP皮瓣进行修复,7位患者皮瓣供区直接缝合,1位患者供区植皮覆盖。结果 应用LICAP皮瓣可成功修复所有微囊型LMs切除术造成的组织缺损。术后随访1-3年,皮瓣形态良好,B超和MRI证实无复发微囊腔出现,皮瓣供区无功能受损。结论 超声和MRI可为手术彻底切除病灶作精确定位并进行手术后评估。微囊型LMs手术切除术后遗留组织缺损可应用LICAP皮瓣获得良好的组织覆盖和修复,术后受区外形良好,供区无功能损伤。     

Perforator flaps: evolution,classification, and applications

In this article, the authors review the literature regarding perforator flaps. Musculocutaneous perforator flaps have evolved from musculocutaneous flaps and offer several distinct advantages. By sparing muscle tissue, thus reducing donor site morbidity and functional loss, perforator flaps are indicated for a number of clinical problems. The versatility of the perforator flap makes it ideal for the reconstruction of three-dimensional defects such as breast reconstruction or as a thin flap for resurfacing shallow wounds when bulk is considered a disadvantage. The authors review the historical development of the perforator flap and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of perforator flaps compared with free and pedicled musculocutaneous flaps. The nomenclature traditionally used for perforator flaps is confusing and lacks a standardized anatomic basis. The authors present a method to describe all perforator flaps according to their artery of origin.     

Perforator Propeller Flap “Relay” for Distal Lower Extremity Soft Tissue Reconstruction

The peroneal artery perforator propeller flap is commonly used for distal lower extremity reconstruction; however, closure of the donor site defect can limit the utility of this flap. To overcome this limitation, we introduced a perforator propeller flap relay technique to reconstruct the donor-site defect. Between July 2015 and February 2019, the propeller flap relay technique was applied in 9 patients. In each case, a peroneal artery perforator propeller flap was transferred to repair a defect in the distal lower leg or the foot. In addition, a neighboring perforator propeller flap was transferred to close the donor-site defect. The peroneal artery perforator propeller flaps ranged from 14 × 4 to 29 × 8 cm² in size. Donor-site closure was accomplished using the relaying propeller flaps based on perforators from the peroneal, medial sural, and lateral sural arteries. Normal contour of the lower leg was preserved with acceptable scars. Additional time for the second flap procedure was less than 1 hour in each case. One peroneal artery perforator flap presented with partial flap necrosis. Other flaps survived completely without complication. Coverage of the donor-site defects of the peroneal artery perforator flaps can be achieved using various perforator propeller flaps. The perforator propeller flap relay technique allows surgeons to harvest a large peroneal artery perforator flap without being limited by significant donor-site morbidity. This technique can reconstruct defects at distal lower extremity with low morbidity and improved overall reconstructive results.     

Update on Breast Reconstruction Techniques and Indications

Breast reconstruction is considered as part of the breast cancer treatment when a mastectomy is required. Implants or expanders are the most frequent techniques used for the reconstructions. Expander provides usually a better symmetry. A contralateral mastoplasty often is required to improve the symmetry. The nipple areola complex, which can be preserved in certain conditions, is usually removed and can be reconstructed in a second stage under local anesthesia. In case of radical mastectomy and/or radiotherapy, a musculocutaneous flap, such as rectus abdominis or latissimus dorsi autologous flaps, is required. When microsurgical facilities are available, free or perforator flaps respecting the muscle are preferred to decrease the donor site complications. In situ carcinomas or prophylactic mastectomy can be reconstructed immediately as well as invasive carcinoma according to the recent literature. Locally advanced breast cancer can be reconstructed after complete oncologic treatment. Radiotherapy of the thoracic wall is proposed in case of lymph node metastases, raising the discussion about the technique choice and the timing of the reconstruction. Plastic surgery procedures can improve the cosmetic results of the conservative surgery, also extending its indications and reducing both mastectomy and reexcision rates. Oncoplasty techniques are becoming more and more sophisticated, requiring the skill of trained plastic surgeons. Numerous publications confirm the psychosocial benefit resulting from the breast reconstruction.     

Modified Lateral Thoracodorsal Flap: A Way Out of a Difficult Problem

Background

Breast deformities, often attributable to surgical mutilations as a result of mammary carcinoma treatment, still are a challenge to plastic surgeons. Interesting alternatives for the frequently used musculocutaneous flaps are local flaps such as the lateral thoracodorsal flap developed by Holmström in 1986. This flap is simple to raise and involves no sacrifice of important muscular structures. This report aims to demonstrate the use of the modified lateral thoracodorsal flap in an immediate mammary reconstruction for a patient who refused any other scar.

Methods

A case report describes a patient presenting with breast cancer after reduction mammaplasty who was treated with a skin-sparing mastectomy and immediate reconstruction.

Results

Satisfactory defect correction was accomplished with adequate silicone implant covering and a natural ptotic breast shape.

Conclusions

The versatility of this flap and its simple execution make it an important option for diverse breast reconstruction situations. The lateral thoracodorsal flap provides aesthetic results similar to those with other reconstruction methods, but without major complexity. The authors believe that it could be an interesting tool for the treatment of a breast anomaly.     

Emerging trends in microsurgical breast reconstruction: deep inferior epigastric artery perforator (DIEP) and the superior gluteal artery perforator (SGAP) flaps

Breast reconstruction is an important adjunct in the treatment of breast cancer. Many reconstructive options exist, however autologous tissue remains the gold standard. One drawback to autologous reconstruction methods is the potential for flap donor site morbidity. Recent advances in microsurgical techniques include the development of perforator flaps, including the Deep Inferior Epigastric Artery Perforator flap (DIEP) and the Superior Gluteal Artery Perforator (SGAP) flaps. Harvest of these flaps attempt to minimize the impact on the donor site and thereby reduce the incidence of donor site complications. This article will review of the indications, advantages and drawbacks to the use of perforator flaps in breast reconstruction surgery.     

Anterolateral thigh flap salvage following failed deep inferior epigastric artery perforator breast reconstruction

The deep inferior epigastric artery perforator flap is an option for women desiring autologous tissue breast reconstruction. If this reconstruction fails, other autologous tissue flaps, including the gluteal artery perforator and latissimus dorsi flaps, may be used for salvage. The anterolateral thigh (ALT) flap offers adequate tissue volume for breast reconstruction, acceptable fat quality and a long vascular pedicle. Other advantages include obviating the need for intraoperative position changes and harvesting tissue outside of the radiation field. Two cases involving ALT flaps used in the setting of deep inferior epigastric artery perforator failure are presented with favourable results. A review of the anatomy of the ALT flap is included.     

穿支皮瓣移植修复四肢软组织缺损108例

目的 探讨应用穿支皮瓣修复四肢皮肤软组织缺损的临床效果. 方法2007年7月至2009年5月,分别采用腹壁下动脉穿支皮瓣、股前外侧穿支皮瓣、胸背动脉穿支皮瓣、股外侧穿支皮瓣、骨间背侧动脉穿支皮瓣、桡侧副动脉穿支皮瓣、腓肠内侧动脉穿支皮瓣、胫后动脉穿支皮瓣、旋髂深动脉穿支皮瓣、腓动脉穿支皮瓣移植修复四肢皮肤软组织缺损108例(游离移植98例,带蒂转移10例),皮瓣切取面积最小4 cm×2 cm,最大44 cm×9 cm,皮瓣供区均直接缝合.结果 术后5例发生静脉危象,其中1例松解包扎后危象解除,4例再次手术探查,2例成活,2例坏死,其余103例顺利成活,皮瓣受区与供区创121愈合良好.术后随访6-24个月(平均10个月),皮瓣颜色、质地好,外形不臃肿;皮瓣供区遗留线性瘢痕,功能无影响. 结论穿支皮瓣不携带肌肉、深筋膜及运动神经,对皮瓣供区影响小,还具有血供可靠、质地薄、不需二期去脂整形的优点,是修复四肢浅表创面的首选方法.