Effects of carbachol on lead-induced impairment of the long-term potentiation/depotentiation in rat dentate gyrus in vivo.

The present study aims at evaluating the impairment of LTP and depotentiation (DP) of LTP induced by acute lead exposure, and the effects of peripheral carbachol (CCh) application on LTP/DP of acute and chronic lead-exposed rats in dentate gyrus in vivo. Rats (80-100 days) were acutely exposed to lead by intraperitoneal injection of 0.2% lead acetate (PbAc) solution (1.5mg/100g) and/or CCh (1 micro g/100g). Rats were chronically exposed to lead from parturition through adulthood (80-100 days) by the drinking of 0.2% PbAc solution and/or CCh (1 micro g/100g) chronic intraperitoneal injection one week. The input-output (I/O) function, paired-pulse reaction (PPR), excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) and population spike (PS) amplitude were measured in response to stimulation applied to the lateral perforant path. Results showed that: first, acute lead exposure significantly depressed the amplitudes of LTP/DP of both EPSP slope and PS amplitude. Second, CCh significantly increased the amplitudes of both EPSP LTP/DP and PS LTP of acute Pb-exposed rats. After CCh treatment, the magnitudes of EPSP LTP/DP and PS LTP of acute Pb-exposed rats showed no significant difference with controls. Third, Chronic CCh application also reversed chronic Pb-induced impairment of PS LTP and EPSP DP of LTP. As CCh does not cross blood-brain barrier in healthy animals, the data suggest that CCh may traverse BBB in Pb-exposed animals and cure Pb-induced dysfunction of learning and memory.     

Developmental Switch of the Serotonergic Role in the Induction of Synaptic Long-term Potentiation in the Rat Visual Cortex

Synaptic long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD) have been studied as mechanisms of ocular dominance plasticity in the rat visual cortex. Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) inhibits the induction of LTP and LTD during the critical period of the rat visual cortex (postnatal 3~5 weeks). However, in adult rats, the increase in 5-HT level in the brain by the administration of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) fluoxetine reinstates ocular dominance plasticity and LTP in the visual cortex. Here, we investigated the effect of 5-HT on the induction of LTP in the visual cortex obtained from 3- to 10-week-old rats. Field potentials in layer 2/3, evoked by the stimulation of underlying layer 4, was potentiated by theta-burst stimulation (TBS) in 3- and 5-week-old rats, then declined to the baseline level with aging to 10 weeks. Whereas 5-HT inhibited the induction of LTP in 5-week-old rats, it reinstated the induction of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDA)-dependent LTP in 8- and 10-week-old rats. Moreover, the selective SSRI citalopram reinstated LTP. The potentiating effect of 5-HT at 8 weeks of age was mediated by the activation of 5-HT(2) receptors, but not by the activation of either 5-HT(1A) or 5-HT(3) receptors. These results suggested that the effect of 5-HT on the induction of LTP switches from inhibitory in young rats to facilitatory in adult rats.     

应激和环境对吗啡暴露大鼠的电生理和行为学影响的研究

目的:研究平台应激、急性吗啡暴露对4周龄和10周龄♂W istar大鼠海马CA1区突触可塑性及空间记忆的影响以及研究丰富环境对大鼠学习记忆、吗啡诱导的条件性位置偏爱(cond itioned p lace preference,CPP)及海马CA1区突触可塑性的影响。方法:电生理实验(在体和离体)和行为学方法(水迷宫和CPP实验),统计采用方差分析(ANOVA)和t检验。结果与结论:(1)慢性应激和/或急性吗啡暴露分别对4周龄和10周龄这两个年龄段的LTP和LTD具有不同作用,存在明显的年龄差异。(2)急性平台应激损害4周龄和10周龄大鼠的记忆,但年龄差异没有显著性;慢性平台应激对10周龄大鼠记忆起易化作用,对4周龄没有明显的影响。(3)急性吗啡暴露(2 mg.kg-1)对4周龄大鼠的记忆有损害作用,而对10周龄大鼠的记忆没有影响。(4)急性应激加吗啡损害了4周龄大鼠的记忆保持,而对10周龄大鼠的记忆保持无影响;慢性应激加吗啡对4周龄大鼠的记忆保持无影响,对10周龄大鼠的记忆保持有易化作用。(5)丰富环境可以增强大鼠的空间学习和记忆能力,增强了吗啡诱导的CPP可能与学习和记忆能力的提高有关;同时,丰富环境对吗啡依赖所致的突触可塑性的损害有保护作用。丰富环境能逆转早期应激所产生的对学习记忆和突触可塑性的损害。     

MPTP-meditated hippocampal dopamine deprivation modulates synaptic transmission and activity-dependent synaptic plasticity

Parkinson's disease (PD)-like symptoms including learning deficits are inducible by 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP). Therefore, it is possible that MPTP may disturb hippocampal memory processing by modulation of dopamine (DA)- and activity-dependent synaptic plasticity. We demonstrate here that intraperitoneal (i.p.) MPTP injection reduces the number of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-positive neurons in the substantia nigra (SN) within 7 days. Subsequently, the TH expression level in SN and hippocampus and the amount of DA and its metabolite DOPAC in striatum and hippocampus decrease. DA depletion does not alter basal synaptic transmission and changes pair-pulse facilitation (PPF) of field excitatory postsynaptic potentials (fEPSPs) only at the 30 ms inter-pulse interval. In addition, the induction of long-term potentiation (LTP) is impaired whereas the duration of long-term depression (LTD) becomes prolonged. Since both LTP and LTD depend critically on activation of NMDA and DA receptors, we also tested the effect of DA depletion on NMDA receptor-mediated synaptic transmission. Seven days after MPTP injection, the NMDA receptor-mediated fEPSPs are decreased by about 23%. Blocking the NMDA receptor-mediated fEPSP does not mimic the MPTP-LTP. Only co-application of D1/D5 and NMDA receptor antagonists during tetanization resembled the time course of fEPSP potentiation as observed 7 days after i.p. MPTP injection. Together, our data demonstrate that MPTP-induced degeneration of DA neurons and the subsequent hippocampal DA depletion alter NMDA receptor-mediated synaptic transmission and activity-dependent synaptic plasticity.     

铅暴露导致小鼠学习记忆功能障碍及海马蛋白激酶B表达降低

目的探讨蛋白激酶B(PKB)在慢性铅暴露所致小鼠学习记忆功能障碍中的作用。方法5～6周龄小鼠交配后,铅暴露组仔鼠通过胎盘、乳汁和饮水饲醋酸铅2.4,4.8和9.6 mmol·L-1,连续42 d。第42天水迷宫实验测平台潜伏期;检测血及脑铅浓度;Sanna方法检测仔鼠海马CA1区长时程增强(LTP)和群峰电位幅值(PS);Western印迹法检测脑海马总PKB(t-PKB)及磷酸化PKB(p-PKB)的表达。结果与正常对照组相比,铅暴露组小鼠寻找平台时间明显延长(P<0.05)。正常对照组血铅为(0.05±0.02)mg·L-1,铅暴露组分别为0.29±0.06,0.91±0.15和(1.46±0.37)mg·L-1;正常对照组脑铅为(0.12±0.056)μg.g-1,铅暴露组分别为2.07±0.55,10.18±1.51和(14.20±2.63)μg.g-1。学习记忆降低程度与血铅、脑铅浓度成正相关(r=0.678,r=0.645,P<0.01)。高频刺激后,正常对照组的PS幅值明显升高,为刺激前的1.76倍,而铅暴露组PS幅值下降到刺激前的85%。与正常对照组比较,暴露铅4.8及9.6 mmol·L-1组,PS幅值明显下降(P<0.01)。铅暴露组的LTP诱发成功率亦有所下降。小鼠海马CA1区LTP损伤程度与血铅、脑铅浓度呈正相关(r=0.659,r=0.638,P<0.01)。铅暴露组小鼠脑海马p-PKB表达均明显降低,并具有浓度效应关系。p-PKB表达与血脑铅浓度呈负相关(r=-0.840,r=-0.813,P<0.01),与学习记忆能力损伤程度呈负相关(r=-0.668,P<0.01)。铅对小鼠海马神经元细胞t-PKB的表达无影响。结论慢性铅暴露可导致学习记忆功能下降,可能与海马p-PKB表达下降有关。     

Prenatal melamine exposure induces impairments of spatial cognition and hippocampal synaptic plasticity in male adolescent rats

Our previous studies showed that chronic melamine exposure could affect hippocampal synaptic plasticity and impair learning and memory on adult rats. In this study, we investigated whether prenatal melamine exposure (PME) induced cognitive deficits and impairment of synaptic plasticity in postnatal offspring. An animal model was produced by melamine exposure throughout gestational period with 400 mg/kg/day, while male offspring rats were employed. Rats’ performance in Morris water maze (MWM) was tested to evaluate learning and memory. To examine the variations of paired-pulse facilitation (PPF) and synaptic plasticity, field excitatory postsynaptic potentials (fEPSPs) were recorded in hippocampal CA1 by stimulating Schaffer collaterals path. The result showed that PME probably impaired spatial learning and memory. The fEPSPs amplitudes of LTP were much lower and the PPF ratio was significantly higher in PME group than controls. These data suggested that PME impaired hippocampal synaptic function, which was partly involved in spatial cognition impairments.     

Neurotransmitter roles in synaptic modulation, plasticity and learning in the dorsal striatum

The dorsal striatum is a large forebrain region involved in action initiation, timing, control, learning and memory. Learning and remembering skilled movement sequences requires the dorsal striatum, and striatal subregions participate in both goal-directed (action-outcome) and habitual (stimulus-response) learning. Modulation of synaptic transmission plays a large part in controlling input to as well as the output from striatal medium spiny projection neurons (MSNs). Synapses in this brain region are subject to short-term modulation, including allosteric alterations in ion channel function and prominent presynaptic inhibition. Two forms of long-term synaptic plasticity have also been observed in striatum, long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD). LTP at glutamatergic synapses onto MSNs involves activation of NMDA-type glutamate receptors and D1 dopamine or A2A adenosine receptors. Expression of LTP appears to involve postsynaptic mechanisms. LTD at glutamatergic synapses involves retrograde endocannabinoid signaling stimulated by activation of metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) and D2 dopamine receptors. While postsynaptic mechanisms participate in LTD induction, maintained expression involves presynaptic mechanisms. A similar form of LTD has also been observed at GABAergic synapses onto MSNs. Studies have just begun to examine the roles of synaptic plasticity in striatal-based learning. Findings to date indicate that molecules implicated in induction of plasticity participate in these forms of learning. Neurotransmitter receptors involved in LTP induction are necessary for proper skill and goal-directed instrumental learning. Interestingly, receptors involved in LTP and LTD at glutamatergic synapses onto MSNs of the “indirect pathway” appear to have important roles in habit learning. More work is needed to reveal if and when synaptic plasticity occurs during learning and if so what molecules and cellular processes, both short- and long-term, contribute to this plasticity.     

Pharmacological inactivation of the small GTPase Rac1 impairs long-term plasticity in the mouse hippocampus

Neuronal development involves several discrete morphological steps requiring migration of newborn neurons to characteristic locations, extension of axons and dendrites into proper target regions, and formation of synapses with appropriate partners. Small GTPases such as Rac1, are believed to be critical regulators of these processes. We have previously reported that Rac1 is highly expressed in mouse hippocampus, where NMDA receptor activation causes Rac1 to translocate to the membrane in a manner similar to that observed in other non-neuronal cells. Additionally Rac1 has been seen to play a role in activation of signal transduction pathways associated with hippocampal learning and memory. Because of the established role of LTP and LTD in learning and memory processes, in this study we investigate whether Rac1 plays also an active and critical role in these types of long-term synaptic plasticity. We found that activation of Rac1 is associated with long-term plasticity, both LTP and LTD. Rac1 appears to have a transient role during the induction of NMDA receptor-dependent LTP, but does not have an effect on LTP maintenance and expression. Similar results were found for NMDA receptor-dependent induction of LTD, while mGluR-dependent LTD was shown to be significantly altered but not abolished. The results of these experiments provide essential knowledge regarding the signaling mechanisms that underlie synaptic plasticity, as well as learning and memory processes, which in turn offers insights into the basis of diseases involving memory impairment, such as Fragile X syndrome, Alzheimer's disease, William's syndrome, Angelman syndrome (AS), and schizophrenia.     

Two components of long-term depression are impaired by chronic lead exposure in area CA1 and dentate gyrus of rat hippocampus in vitro

Previous studies have demonstrated that low-level lead exposure can impair the induction of long-term depression (LTD) in area CA1 and dentate gyrus (DG) of rat hippocampus in vitro and in vivo. The induction of LTD in area CA1 and DG has been shown to associate with N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) and voltage-gated calcium channel (VGCC). In this study, the relative contributions of NMDARs-dependent and VGCC-dependent components in the induction of LTD in the hippocampus and the impairments of these two components of LTD by chronic low-level lead exposure were investigated. Neonatal Wistar rats were exposed to lead from parturition to weaning via milk of dams drinking 0.2% lead acetate solution. Field excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) were recorded in area CA1 and DG before and after two 15-min trains of 1-Hz low-frequency stimulation (LFS) (2x900 pulses). In area CA1, the amplitude of NMDARs-dependent LTD (NMDA-LTD), in the presence of 10 microM nimodipine (a blocker of L-type Ca(2+) channels), was 80.05+/-2.54% (n=8) and 94.58+/-10.57% (n=8) in the control and lead-exposed rats, respectively. The amplitude of VGCC-dependent LTD (VGCC-LTD), in the presence of 50 microM (-)-2-amino-5-phosphonopentanoic acid (AP5), was 80.36+/-4.08% (n=10) and 93.91+/-7.85% (n=10) in the control and lead-exposed rats, respectively. In area DG the amplitude of NMDA-LTD, with both 50 microM Ni(2+) (a blocker of T-type Ca(2+) channels) and 10 microM nimodipine present, in the control rats (79. 97+/-4.30%, n=8) was significantly larger than that in the lead-exposed rats (91.24+/-11.08%, n=10, P<0.001). The amplitude of VGCC-LTD, with 50 microM AP5 present, was significantly larger in the control rats (70.80+/-3.64%, n=9) than that in the lead-exposed rats (87.60+/-9.00%, n=10, P<0.001). The results suggested that chronic lead exposure affected two components of LTD induction in area CA1 and DG. Furthermore, the impairment of two components by lead exposure might be similar in area CA1, while the impairment of VGCC-LTD might be more serious in DG of hippocampus.     

D-serine augments NMDA-NR2B receptor-dependent hippocampal long-term depression and spatial reversal learning.

The contributions of hippocampal long-term depression (LTD) to explicit learning and memory are poorly understood. Electrophysiological and behavioral studies examined the effects of modulating NMDA receptor-dependent LTD on spatial learning in the Morris water maze (MWM). The NMDA receptor co-agonist D-serine substantially enhanced NR2B-dependent LTD, but not long-term potentiation (LTP) or depotentiation, in hippocampal slices from adult wild type mice. Exogenous D-serine did not alter MWM acquisition, but substantially enhanced subsequent reversal learning of a novel target location and performance in a delayed-matching-to-place task. Conversely, an NR2B antagonist disrupted reversal learning and promoted perseveration. Endogenous synaptic D-serine likely saturates during LTP induction because exogenous D-serine rescued deficient LTP and MWM acquisition in Grin1(D481N) mutant mice having a lower D-serine affinity. Thus, D-serine may enhance a form of hippocampal NR2B-dependent LTD that contributes to spatial reversal learning. By enhancing this form of synaptic plasticity, D-serine could improve cognitive flexibility in psychiatric disorders characterized by perseveration of aberrant ideation or behaviors.     

Age-related impairment of long-term depression in area CA1 and dentate gyrus of rat hippocampus following developmental lead exposure in vitro

Chronic developmental lead exposure is known to be associated with cognitive dysfunction in children. Impairment of the induction of long-term depression (LTD) has been reported in area CA1 and dentate gyrus (DG) of rat hippocampus following chronic lead exposure. The present study was carried out to investigate age-related alterations of LTD in area CA1 and DG of rat hippocampus following developmental lead exposure in vitro. Neonatal Wistar rats were exposed to lead from parturition to weaning via milk of dams drinking 0.2% lead acetate solution. Field excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) were recorded in hippocampal slices at various postnatal ages: postnatal day (PND) 17-23, 27-33, and 57-63. Following low-frequency stimulation (LFS, 900 pulses/1 Hz), the average magnitude of LTD is age related. In the controls, LTD magnitude in area CA1 decreased with age, whereas in DG it increased with age. In the lead-exposed groups, the magnitude of LTD declined during development in both area CA1 and DG. The differences of LTD magnitude between the control and lead-exposed rats were 27.26 +/- 9.15% (PND 17-23), 21.59 +/- 12.93% (PND 27-33), and 16.96 +/- 9.33% (PND 57-63) in area CA1, and were 6.95 +/- 9.26%, 17.60 +/- 3.91%, and 33.63 +/- 10.47% in DG, respectively. These results demonstrated that the lead-induced impairment of LTD magnitude was an age-related decline in area CA1 and an age-related increase in area DG of rat hippocampus. Published by Elsevier Science Inc.     

蛇床子素对脑缺血/再灌注大鼠海马LTP及氨基酸含量的影响

目的研究蛇床子素对脑缺血/再灌注大鼠海马齿状回突触传递活动及海马内氨基酸含量的影响。方法 SD大鼠随机分为正常组、假手术组、模型组、蛇床子素组(25.0、12.5 mg.kg-1)和尼莫地平组(1.0 mg.kg-1),腔内线栓法制作右侧大脑中动脉栓塞(middle cerebral artery occlusion,MCAO)模型,缺血后2 h再灌。采用2,3,5-氯化三苯基四氮唑(TTC)染色法记录大鼠脑梗死体积、Morris水迷宫法观察大鼠空间学习记忆能力、电生理学方法记录中枢突触传递长时程增强(long-term potentiation,LTP)现象、高效液相色谱法记录大鼠海马内氨基酸含量的变化。结果蛇床子素(25.0、12.5 mg.kg-1,ip)可减少大鼠脑梗死体积,剂量依赖性地缩短大鼠寻找站台的时间,增强大鼠海马齿状回高频刺激(high frequency stimulation,HFS)诱导的LTP,降低再灌后72 h内海马内谷氨酸含量,蛇床子素(25.0 mg.kg-1)对于γ-氨基丁酸产生先降低后升高的调节作用,与尼莫地平组作用结果一致。结论蛇床子素改善学习记忆障碍、增强脑缺血/再灌注大鼠海马齿状回HFS诱导的LTP的作用,与调节海马内谷氨酸、γ-氨基丁酸水平有关。     

Transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 agonists modulate hippocampal CA1 LTP via the GABAergic system

Transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) was shown to modulate hippocampal CA1 pyramidal cell synaptic plasticity, including long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD). Synaptic plasticity is the cellular mechanism thought to mediate declarative learning and memory in the hippocampus. Although TRPV1 is involved in modulating hippocampal plasticity, it has yet to be determined how TRPV1 mediates its effects. Using field electrophysiology in hippocampal CA1 stratum radiatum we investigated how TRPV1 agonists modulate LTP, low frequency stimulation-induced LTD, and (RS)-3,5-dihydroxyphenylglycine (DHPG)-induced LTD. First we confirmed that TRPV1 agonists induce enhancement of CA1 pyramidal cell LTP in the absence the GABA_A receptor antagonist picrotoxin. Because it was recently determined that TRPV1 mediates a novel form of LTD in CA1 inhibitory GABAergic interneurons, which can disinhibit CA1 pyramidal cells, we used picrotoxin to block the effect of the GABAergic circuitry on CA1 LTP. When using picrotoxin, the TRPV1 agonist-induced enhancement of CA1 LTP was eliminated suggesting that the GABAergic circuitry is required for TRPV1 agonist mediated increases. Regarding LTD, in contrast to previously reported data, we did not see TRPV1 agonist-mediated effect on low frequency-induced stimulus LTD. However, during DHPG-induced LTD, TRPV1 was involved in the acute, but not the long-term depression phase of this plasticity. In summary, our findings support TRPV1 agonist involvement in hippocampal synaptic plasticity, including its enhancement of CA1 LTP. We demonstrate that the enhancement mediated by TRPV1 agonists requires GABA input to pyramidal cells thus providing a mechanism for how TRPV1 agonists modulate hippocampal synaptic plasticity.     

The induction of long-term potentiation at amygdalo-hippocampal synapses in vivo

Electrical stimulation of the basolateral amygdala (BLA) evoked synaptic potentials in the dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus in anesthetized rats. To determine if this pathway possesses synaptic plasticity, we investigated the impact of several conditions of high-frequency stimulation on BLA-DG synaptic potentials in these rats. Application of two trains of 100-pulse, 100-Hz stimulation or theta-burst stimulation to the BLA reproducibly induced long-term potentiation (LTP) of BLA-DG synaptic potentials. Paired-pulse facilitation was unchanged during LTP, suggesting that postsynaptic mechanisms are involved in the expression of LTP. In addition, the induction of LTP was not affected by the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist 2-amino-5-phosphonovalerate, suggesting that activation of NMDA receptors is not required. This novel form of LTP should be a valuable model for elucidating neural mechanisms underlying the formation of emotional memory.     

HFS-induced long-term potentiation and LFS-induced depotentiation in area CA1 of the hippocampus are not good models for learning

Spatial learning in rats has been shown to be dependent on the intact hippocampus and lesioning this region impairs learning performance. Long-term potentiation (LTP) and depotentiation (DP) of synaptic transmission have been suggested to model memory formation at the neuronal level. Recently it was shown that LTP in the dentate gyrus or area CA3 of the hippocampus is not essential for the ability to learn a spatial water maze task. Here we show that the metabotropic glutamate receptor agonist (1S,3S)-1-aminocyclopentane-1,3-dicarboxylic acid (1S,3S-ACPD), which acts predominantly at presynaptic sites, only marginally impaired spatial learning in a water maze or radial arm maze (three out of eight arms baited) when injected ICV (5 μl of a 20 mM solution). There also were small impairments in non-spatial and visual discrimination tasks, indicating that the small learning impairments were due to nonselective effects of the drug. The same dose depressed field EPSPs and completely blocked LTP induced by high-frequency stimulation (HFS, 200 Hz) in the CA1 region of the rat hippocampus in vivo. A lower (5 μl of a 10 mM solution) dose did not depress baseline but still blocked LTP. Injecting the same dose after induction of LTP blocked DP induced by low-frequency stimulation (LFS, 10 Hz). These results indicate that neither HFS-induced LTP nor LFS-induced DP in area CA1 are good models for the induction of synaptic changes that might underlie spatial learning in the rat. Received: 28 July 1996/Final version: 17 September 1996     

发育期补充DHA对大鼠海马突触可塑性的影响

目的探讨鱼油DHA对海马突触可塑性的影响,为DHA对学习记忆的作用提供电生理依据。方法将大鼠分为灌胃鱼油组和对照组,每天分别灌以5×103ml·g-1体重的鱼油和生理盐水,90d后运用在位电生理实验方法,刺激大鼠海马穿通纤维—齿状回通路,在同一动物上记录海马DG区的LTP和LTD。结果与对照组相比,鱼油组明显增强了PS诱导的LTP,对EPSP诱导的LTP无影响;对PS和EPSP诱导的LTD均有明显的减弱作用。结论补充鱼油对海马突触可塑性有一定影响,这种影响可能是鱼油提高学习记忆能力的生理依据之一。     

Hippocampal synaptic plasticity restoration and anti-apoptotic effect underlie berberine improvement of learning and memory in streptozotocin-diabetic rats

Chronic diabetes mellitus initiates apoptosis and negatively affects synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus with ensuing impairments of learning and memory. Berberine, an isoquinoline alkaloid, exhibits anti-diabetic, antioxidant and nootropic effects. This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of berberine on hippocampal CA1 neuronal apoptosis, synaptic plasticity and learning and memory of streptozotocin (STZ)-diabetic rats. Long-term potentiation (LTP) in perforant path-dentate gyrus synapses was recorded for assessment of synaptic plasticity and field excitatory post-synaptic potential (fEPSP) slope and population spike (PS) amplitude. PS amplitude and fEPSP significantly decreased in diabetic group versus control, and chronic berberine treatment (100 mg/kg/day, p.o.) restored PS amplitude and fEPSP and ameliorated learning and memory impairment and attenuated apoptosis of pyramidal neurons in the CA1 area, as determined by the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT)-mediated dUTP nick end-labeling method. In summary, chronic berberine treatment of STZ-diabetic rats significantly ameliorates learning and memory impairment and part of its beneficial effect could be attributed to improvement of synaptic dysfunction and anti-apoptotic property.     

The Na+/H+ exchanger modulates long-term potentiation in rat hippocampal slices

Although present in great variety in the brain, the role of Na⁺/H⁺ exchangers (NHEs) in hippocampal plasticity is still unknown and the effect of NHE inhibition on long-term potentiation (LTP) has not been studied yet. As it is conceivable that NHE inhibitors may severely affect mechanisms that are considered to underlie learning and memory we investigated whether the broad-spectrum NHE inhibitor 5′-(N-ethyl-N-isopropyl)-amiloride (EIPA, 10 μM) influences LTP induced by different stimuli based on a theta burst in interface hippocampus slices from 7–8-week-old Wistar and 30-month-old Fischer 344/Brown–Norway F1 hybrid (F344/BN) rats. EIPA did not affect basal synaptic transmission, paired pulse inhibition, or LTP induced by a weak stimulus, but improved the maintenance of the LTP of the population spike induced by a strong tetanus. Our data suggest that NHE activity serves as a negative feedback mechanism to control neuronal excitability and plasticity in both young and senescent animals.     

The in vivo synaptic plasticity mechanism of EGb 761-induced enhancement of spatial learning and memory in aged rats

It has not been uniform to date that the Ginkgo biloba extracts enhance cognitive function in aged animals, and the mechanisms of action remain difficult to elucidate. In this study, the Morris water maze task and electrophysiological methods were used to study the effects of repeated daily administration of EGb 761, a standardized extract from G. biloba leaves, on hippocampal-dependent spatial learning and memory and synaptic plasticity of aged rats. The adult subjects perform the Morris water maze task better than aged rats, as a cellular mechanism, the hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP) elicited from adult animals is robust (139.29+/-2.7%). In addition, the spatial learning and memory of aged rats that had been fed on an EGb 761-supplemented diet (60 mg kg(-1)) for 30 days were significantly better than those of control aged rats. The magnitude of LTP (116.63+/-3.6%) recorded in vivo from the hippocampus CA1 area of aged rats was significantly enhanced by EGb 761 (60 mg kg(-1)). In conclusion, the spatial learning and memory of aged rats is worse than that of young subjects, and EGb 761, acting as a 'cognitive enhancer', has benefit on synaptic plasticity and cognition in aged rats. The present data further confirmed that enhancement of synaptic plasticity of the hippocampus might ameliorate the deficit in spatial learning and memory in aged rats.     

Cannabinoids Ameliorate Impairments Induced by Chronic Stress to Synaptic Plasticity and Short-Term Memory

Repeated stress is one of the environmental factors that precipitates and exacerbates mental illnesses like depression and anxiety as well as cognitive impairments. We have previously shown that cannabinoids can prevent the effects of acute stress on learning and memory. Here we aimed to find whether chronic cannabinoid treatment would alleviate the long-term effects of exposure to chronic restraint stress on memory and plasticity as well as on behavioral and neuroendocrine measures of anxiety and depression. Late adolescent rats were exposed to chronic restraint stress for 2 weeks followed each day by systemic treatment with vehicle or with the CB1/2 receptor agonist WIN55,212-2 (1.2 mg/kg). Thirty days after the last exposure to stress, rats demonstrated impaired long-term potentiation (LTP) in the ventral subiculum-nucleus accumbens (NAc) pathway, impaired performance in the prefrontal cortex (PFC)-dependent object-recognition task and the hippocampal-dependent spatial version of this task, increased anxiety levels, and significantly reduced expression of glucocorticoid receptors (GRs) in the amygdala, hippocampus, PFC, and NAc. Chronic WIN55,212-2 administration prevented the stress-induced impairment in LTP levels and in the spatial task, with no effect on stress-induced alterations in unconditioned anxiety levels or GR levels. The CB1 antagonist AM251 (0.3 mg/kg) prevented the ameliorating effects of WIN55,212-2 on LTP and short-term memory. Hence, the beneficial effects of WIN55,212-2 on memory and plasticity are mediated by CB1 receptors and are not mediated by alterations in GR levels in the brain areas tested. Our findings suggest that cannabinoid receptor activation could represent a novel approach to the treatment of cognitive deficits that accompany a variety of stress-related neuropsychiatric disorders.