Urinary sodium excretion,dietary sources of sodium intake and knowledge and practices around salt use in a group of healthy Australian women

Objective: Strategies that aim to facilitate reduction of the salt content of foods in Australia are hampered by sparse and outdated data on habitual salt intakes. This study assessed habitual sodium intake through urinary excretion analyses, and identified food sources of dietary sodium, as well as knowledge and practices related to salt use in healthy women. Methods: Cross‐sectional, convenient sample of 76 women aged 20 to 55 years, Wollongong, NSW. Data included a 24 hour urine sample, three‐day food diary and a self‐administered questionnaire. Results: Mean Na excretion equated to a NaCl (salt) intake of 6.41 (SD=2.61) g/day; 43% had values <6 g/day. Food groups contributing to dietary sodium were: bread and cereals (27%); dressings/sauces (20%); meat/egg‐based dishes (18%); snacks/desserts/extras (11%); and milk and dairy products (11%). Approximately half the sample reported using salt in cooking or at the table. Dietary practices reflected a high awareness of salt‐related health issues and a good knowledge of food sources of sodium. Conclusion: These findings from a sample of healthy women in the Illawarra indicate that dietary sodium intakes are lower in this group than previously reported in Australia. However, personal food choices and high levels of awareness of the salt reduction messages are not enough to achieve more stringent dietary targets of <4 g salt per day. Implications: Urinary Na excretion data are required from a larger nationally representative sample to confirm habitual salt intakes. The bread and cereals food group are an obvious target for sodium reduction strategies in manufactured foods.     

Energy, macro- and micronutrient intake of 5-year-old urban black South African children in 1984 and 1995

Food habits change over time. This paper reports results of nutritional studies among 5-year-old urban black children in 1984 and 1995 in the Johannesburg/Soweto area. The objective was to compare energy, macro- and micronutrient intake of 5-year-old urban black South African children. Dietary intake was assessed by detailed dietary histories in 1984 and food frequency questionnaires in 1995, conducted by trained interviewers. The intake of energy, macro- and most micronutrients was higher in 1995 than in 1984, except for vitamin A, ascorbic acid, copper and iron. Fat intake increased from 52 g/day in 1984 to 95 g/day in 1995. Only biotin and vitamin D fell below 67% of the recommended dietary allowances (RDA) for 4- to 6-year-olds, but mean intakes concealed the high percentage of children that had intakes below the RDA in 1984 and 1995. Urban black 5-year-old South African children consumed a low-fat (30% of total energy), high-carbohydrate (61% of total energy) diet in 1984, but a typical westernised diet by 1995 (fat 41% and carbohydrate 52% of total energy). With these changes, current reliable nutrition information is needed to assess the existing and future health needs of all South Africans.     

Non-starch polysaccharide intake in vegans and the relationship with energy distribution and mineral intakes

Background There is little information available about non-starch polysaccharide (NSP) intake in vegans. This study aimed to estimate the intake of NSP in the habitual vegan diet and to assess the relationship between NSP intake and energy distribution, and intakes of selected minerals.
Method NSP intake, energy distribution and intakes of calcium, magnesium, iron and zinc were estimated, using a 4-day weighed record, in 26 adult vegans (male n  = 11, female n  = 15) consuming their habitual diet.
Results Mean BMI values in males (22.0) and females (21.1) were significantly lower than the average for the UK population. Mean daily NSP intakes in males (27 g) and females (23 g) were higher than the dietary reference value (DRV) population average of 18 g day^–1, although six subjects had intakes below this and two male subjects had intakes below the DRV individual minimum of 12 g day^–1. Cereals were the major contributor to total NSP intakes. Mean contributions to total energy intake in males and females were in-line with the DRV. Mean calcium intakes were below the reference nutrient intake (RNI) while mean intakes of magnesium, iron and zinc were above the RNIs. There were significant positive correlations between NSP intake and calcium, magnesium, iron and zinc.
Conclusion Occasional low NSP intakes and, conversely, high intakes of NSP combined with marginal calcium intakes in some vegans are of concern. Further work is needed to assess food sources and NSP intakes in the current vegan diet.     

Nutrient intakes of whites, blacks, and Mexican Americans in southeast Texas

Ethnic groups in the United States exhibit different patterns of cardiovascular disease and cancer morbidity and mortality. This has, in part, been attributed to differences in dietary intake. However, there is limited comparative information available regarding the dietary patterns of whites, blacks, and Hispanics residing in the same geographic area. Selected nutrient intakes were obtained by an interviewer-administered 24-hr dietary recall from 231 white, 102 black, and 98 Mexican-American persons residing in the same communities in Southeast Texas. Mean caloric intakes were highest for whites, followed by Mexican Americans and blacks. Mexican Americans had carbohydrate intakes that were significantly higher, but total fat intakes that were significantly lower, than those of whites. Blacks of both sexes had the highest cholesterol intakes and black males had the highest saturated fat intakes. Neither was significantly higher than that of whites or Mexican Americans. Overall, the mean vitamin A and C values were highest for blacks and lowest for whites, although the differences were not statistically significant. Mean calcium and phosphorus intakes were significantly higher for whites compared with those for blacks and Mexican Americans. Blacks had significantly lower mean fiber values than whites or Mexican Americans. International ethnic differences in disease distribution have long been used to provide clues to etiologic factors. National ethnic differences in disease distribution related to dietary intake can further elucidate these causative and/or preventive factors. However, to do so will require additional attention to dietary methodology of the type presented here.     

北京市区老年人钙、铁的食物来源

目的　研究分析北京城区 6 0岁以上老年人钙和铁的膳食来源。方法　采用整群随机抽样方法从北京四个城区获得调查对象 2 2 6 3人。用 2 4小时回顾法进行三天膳食调查 ,计算每人每日各种食物摄入量。将食物分为 18类 ,计算各类食物对调查对象钙和铁的贡献率。结果　奶类是钙的主要来源 ,贡献率 34 5 %。蔬菜、粮谷及豆类对钙的贡献率分别为 19 5 % ,14 5 %和 10 9%。北京市区老年人铁的主要来源是谷类、蔬菜、豆类等 ,其贡献率分别为 38 0 % ,13 7%和 7 2 %。膳食中肉、禽及鱼类供应的铁只占 12 8%。结论　从调查结果可见 ,近年来 ,北京城区老年人奶类消费量及钙摄入量已明显增加。但经常饮奶的人只占调查对象的三分之一 ,且钙的平均摄入量也仅达到适宜摄入量的 5 0 %。若能进一步改进高钙食物如酸奶、深色叶菜及各种风味豆制品的供应 ,将更有利于改善老年人钙的营养状况。植物性食物来源的铁主要为非血红素铁 ,其生物利用率很低 ,但大量增加老年人肉类的消费来提高膳食铁利用率的作法并不可取。因此 ,开发和推广铁强化食品来改善居民铁营养状况 ,不失为一种有效措施。     

Calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium intakes in Japanese children aged 3 to 5 years

The present study aimed to evaluate in preschool children the intakes of Ca, Mg that possibly affect health and tooth formation and the intakes of K and Na that may affect lifestyle-related diseases. Information on dietary intake was collected from 90 preschool children (15 boys and 15 girls each in the 3-, 4- and 5-year old groups) on 3 separate days in the school fiscal year 1999 (April 1999 to March 2000) by the duplicate-diet technique. The Ca, Mg, K, and Na concentrations were determined by atomic absorption spectrometry using wet-ashed samples. The medians of mean daily intakes of Ca, Mg, K and Na in 3- to 5-year-old children were 432 mg, 110 mg, 1.18 g and 1.60 g, respectively, and no significant differences with regard to gender were observed. Seasonal varia-tion of intake was seen for each mineral. Calcium intake in most preschool children did not meet adequate intake (AI), probably due to low intakes of milk and dairy products in Japan. Magnesium intake was below the estimated average requirement (EAR) in 13.3% of the subjects, while the K intake met the AI. Sodium intake in a quarter of preschool children exceeded the tentative dietary goal. We concluded that in Japanese children aged 3-5 years; Ca intake is low, Na intake is high, and K intake is adequate, but some children could be at risk for Mg deficiency.     

Older black women differ in calcium intake source compared to age- and socioeconomic status-matched white women

Racial disparity in osteoporosis between older black and white women is well established; however, less is known regarding daily dietary and supplemental calcium intake in these populations. Moreover, racial differences in calcium intake are confounded by differences in socioeconomic status (SES). The objective of this study was to assess calcium intake and source in older black women (n=33) and white women (n=33), matched in age and SES. Calcium intake and source were evaluated by interview using a 46-item calcium food frequency questionnaire including all food groups and supplements. Black and white women were identical in SES and matched on age (black women 66.9+/-6.2 years vs white women 67.1+/-5.5 years [mean+/-standard deviation], P=0.85). No significant difference existed for dietary calcium intake between black and white women (974+/-524 vs 1,070+/-600 mg/day; P=0.65) or total calcium intake between black and white women (1,485+/-979 vs 1,791+/-887 mg/day; P=0.15). Dairy foods contributed most to dietary calcium intake in black and white women and differed by race (black women 402+/-269 mg/day, white women, 603+/-376 mg/day; P=0.02). Calcium intake from grains differed by race (black women 205+/-201 mg/day vs white women 130+/-234 mg/day; P=0.010) and fortified cereals were a major source of calcium for black women. Calcium supplementation contributed substantially to total calcium intake in both groups, with more white women (n=23, 70%) using supplements than black women did (n=19, 58%). However, no racial difference existed in supplemented calcium intake (black women, n=19; 889+/-605 vs white women, n=23; 1,034+/-460 mg/day; P=0.20). Our data suggest that total daily dietary and supplemental calcium intakes do not differ, but calcium intake from dairy foods and from grains differ in older black and white women matched in age and SES.     

A three-part, mixed-effects model to estimate the habitual total vitamin D intake distribution from food and dietary supplements in Dutch young children

Statistical modeling of habitual micronutrient intake from food and dietary supplements using short-term measurements is hampered by heterogeneous variances and multimodality. Summing short-term intakes from food and dietary supplements prior to simple correction for within-person variation (first add then shrink) may produce estimates of habitual total micronutrient intake so badly biased as to be smaller than estimates of habitual intake from food sources only. A 3-part model using a first shrink then add approach is proposed to estimate the habitual micronutrient intake from food among nonsupplement users, food among supplement users, and supplements. The population distribution of habitual total micronutrient intake is estimated by combining these 3 habitual intake distributions, accounting for possible interdependence between Eq. 2 and 3. The new model is an extension of a model developed by the USA National Cancer Institute. Habitual total vitamin D intake among young children was estimated using the proposed model and data from the Dutch food consumption survey (n = 1279). The model always produced habitual total intakes similar to or higher than habitual intakes from food sources only and also preserved the multimodal shape of the observed total vitamin D intake distribution. This proposed method incorporates several sources of covariate information that should provide more precise estimates of the habitual total intake distribution and the proportion of the population with intakes below/above cutpoint values. The proposed methodology could be useful for other complex situations, e.g. where high concentrations of micronutrients appear in episodically consumed foods.     

Consumption and sources of sugars in the diets of British schoolchildren: are high-sugar diets nutritionally inferior?

Data files of the food intakes of 2705 schoolchildren surveyed in 1983 (DoH, 1989a) were reanalysed to provide an estimate of the total intake of sugars and major sources of sugars in the diet. The relationships between intake of sugars, nutrients and nutrient density were examined by comparing between tertiles, firstly of total sugars (g/day) and subsequently of percentage energy from sugars. The results are presented separately for boys and girls in two age-groups (10–11 years and 14–15 years). The estimated mean intake of sugars (123 g/day, s.d. 42 g) was equivalent to 23% of dietary energy. Major sources were confectionery (18%), table sugar (16%), cakes and biscuits (13%), milk (10%), soft drinks (9%) and puddings (9%). Nutrient intakes were not significantly lower, and indeed were often higher, in those groups consuming most sugars, by either method of defining tertiles. Energy intake appeared to be the major influence on intakes of nutrients. Nutrient densities (mg or μg/MJ) showed different trends: vitamin A, vitamin C and thiamin concentrations were similar across all tertiles, while those for calcium and riboflavin tended to rise with increasing sugars intake and those for iron and nicotinic acid tended to fall, although not all of these differences were significant in all age/sex groups at the 1% level. There was a significant reciprocal (inverse) relationship between sugars and percentage energy from fat. Iron intakes were low in girls, irrespective of consumption of sugars. These data therefore provide little support for the ‘empty calorie’ hypothesis Schoolchildren with low energy intakes in combination with high proportional intakes of sugar may constitute a theoretical at-risk group, particularly with regard to iron intake. However, because the possibility cannot be excluded that habitual food intake may be underrepresented in dietary records, further investigation of such groups by methods incorporating clinical/biochemical assessments are warranted.     

The effects of race, household income, and parental education on nutrient intakes of 9- and 10-year-old girls NHLBI growth and health study

Nutrient intakes of 2149 black and white, 9- and 10-year-old girls varied by race, household income, and parental education. Of the three variables, higher education was most consistently associated with more desirable levels of nutrient intakes, that is, lower percentage of dietary fat and higher levels of vitamin C, calcium, and potassium. Higher income was related to higher intakes of vitamin C, but lower intakes of calcium and iron. Higher income was associated with lower percentage of dietary fat. After adjustment for income and education, race was associated with intakes of calcium, vitamin C, and to a lesser extent, percentages of kilocalories from total fat and polyunsaturated fat, and potassium. Black girls had a significantly lower intake of calcium (720 versus 889 mg) and a higher intake of vitamin C (91 versus 83 mg).Proportions of the cohort with inadequate or excessive intakes of micronutrients and macronutrients were also estimated. A high proportion of girls exceeded the recommended intake level of 30% of kilocalories from total fat (90% of black girls; 84% of white girls) and 10% of kilocalories from saturated fat (92 and 93%, respectively). Low intakes of calcium (40% of black girls and 20% of white girls) and zinc (36 and 38%, respectively) commonly were found for girls of both races.     

the potential of AGE MODE, an age-dependent model, to estimate usual intakes and prevalences of inadequate intakes in a population

Dietary intake data often stem from short-term measurements. However, for dietary assessment, generally the habitual intake distribution is of interest. Currently, habitual intake distributions are often estimated separately for subgroups of gender and age and do not take into account the variation in intake caused by age within age groups. Therefore, we developed an age-dependent dietary assessment model, which was demonstrated and tested using folate intakes from the third Dutch National Food Consumption Survey, conducted in 1997/98. The proposed model produced estimates of the mean habitual intake and intake percentiles as a function of age. The methodology has clear advantages in estimating habitual intakes in children. Also, given the large variation in intakes of several dietary components, estimated habitual intakes produced by other methods may have low precision and be less reliable if numbers are small. In our age-dependent model, all available data can be used to estimate the parameters of the habitual intake distribution, improving the precision of the estimates, and providing consistent estimates for a larger population sample as no subgroups need to be created. Although the model may still be further developed, the feature of age dependency shows clear advantages above methods currently used to estimate habitual intakes.     

Evidence of nutrient dilution with high sugar intakes in older South Africans

Aims: To investigate the association between added sugar intake and (i) micronutrient intake, (ii) energy profiles and (iii) body mass index (BMI) of a sample of older South Africans. Methods: A sample of 200 free-living South Africans of mixed ancestry, aged 65 years and older and resident in Cape Town, was randomly drawn using a two-stage cluster design. Dietary intake was assessed using an interviewer-administered quantified food frequency questionnaire. Statistical analyses: Spearman correlation coefficients were used to investigate the associations between (i) sugar intake and (ii) total energy intake, and macro- and micronutrient intakes and BMI. Differences between the subgroups according to either tertiles of sugar or total energy intake were tested for significance at the P=0.05 level using analysis of variance (ANOVA ). Age was controlled for in the ANOVA models, according to two groups: 65–74 years and >75 years. Results: For both men and women, the proportion of energy provided by sugars did not differ across the tertiles of energy intake, suggesting that subjects with the highest energy intakes consumed greater quantities of all foods, rather than selecting foods high in sugar. An inverse association was found between the proportion of total energy provided by sugar and (i) the proportion of food energy provided by fat ( r=?0.53; P< 0.0001) and (ii) dietary fibre intake per 4.18 MJ/day ( r=?0.48; P<0.0001). In men the intake of thiamin, vitamin E, iron, zinc, copper and magnesium per 4.18 MJ significantly decreased ( P<0.05) as sugar intake as a percentage of total energy intake (%E) rose. In women, micronutrient intake expressed per 4.18 MJ showed a significant negative trend with sugar intakes as %E for all of the micronutrients investigated, except for vitamins D and E. Body mass index tended to decrease as sugar intake rose, but this difference did not reach significance. Conclusion: The findings of this study did not demonstrate an association between sugar intake and obesity in older South Africans. However, a nutrient-diluting effect of sugar intake on both micronutrient and fibre intake was observed and needs to be addressed in nutrition intervention strategies for this age group.     

Food mixture or ingredient sources for dietary calcium: shifts in food group contributions using four grouping protocols

Identifying dietary sources of nutrients by assigning survey foods to food groups can under- or overestimate the contribution a group makes to the intake of specific nutrients. Using calcium and food intakes from USDA's 1994-1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals, the authors determined the proportion of dietary calcium from the dairy, grains, meats, fruits, and vegetables groups using four grouping protocols. Calcium contributions from milk and cheese were higher as more ingredient sources and fewer survey food items were represented in the dairy group. Milk, cheese, and yogurt reported as separate survey food items contributed 42% of total calcium intake. An additional 21% of dietary calcium came from dairy ingredients in mixed foods such as macaroni and cheese, pizza, sandwiches, and desserts. The remaining dietary calcium sources were single grains (16%); vegetable (7%); meat, poultry, and fish (5%); fruit (3%); and miscellaneous foods (7%). Data quantifying the nutrient contributions from dairy ingredients could affect dietary guidance messages or research using dairy foods as variables.     

Consumption of red meat, white meat and processed meat in Irish adults in relation to dietary quality

The aim of the present study was to examine the association of red meat, white meat and processed meat consumption in Irish adults with dietary quality. A cross-sectional study of subjects, randomly selected using the electoral register, estimated habitual food intakes using a 7 d food diary in a nationally representative sample of 662 men and 717 women (not pregnant or lactating) aged 18-64 years. Consumers were classified into thirds, based on the distribution of mean daily intakes for red meat, white meat and processed meat. The mean intakes of red meat, white meat and processed meat were 51, 33 and 26 g/d respectively, and men consumed significantly more (P<0.001) than women for all meat types. In men, red meat consumption was associated with lower (P<0.001) prevalence of inadequacy for Zn, riboflavin and vitamin C intakes. Increasing processed meat intake was associated with a lower (P<0.01) level of compliance with dietary recommendations for fat, carbohydrate and fibre in men. Increasing processed meat consumption was associated with lower (P<0.01) wholemeal bread, vegetables, fruit and fish intakes in men and women. Managerial occupations were associated with lower processed meat intakes. It is important to distinguish between meat groups, as there was a large variation between the dietary quality in consumers of red meat, white meat and processed meat. Processed meat consumption is negatively associated with dietary quality and might therefore be a dietary indicator of poor dietary quality. This has important implications in nutritional epidemiological studies and for the development of food-based dietary guidelines.     

An overview of the role of bread in the UK diet

Despite being a staple food in the UK for centuries, bread consumption has fallen steadily over the last few decades. Average consumption now equates to only around 2–3 slices of bread a day. As well as providing energy, mainly in the form of starch, bread contains dietary fibre and a range of vitamins and minerals. The National Diet and Nutrition Survey (NDNS) of adults suggests that it still contributes more than 10% of our daily intake of protein, thiamine, niacin, folate, iron, zinc, copper and magnesium; one‐fifth of our fibre and calcium intakes; and more than one‐quarter of our manganese intake. Therefore, eating bread can help consumers to meet their daily requirements for many nutrients, including micronutrients for which there is evidence of low intake in some groups in the UK, such as zinc and calcium. This paper gives an overview of the role of bread in the UK diet, its contribution to nutrient intakes and current consumption patterns in different population groups.     

Calcium intakes of Mexican Americans, Cubans, Puerto Ricans, non-Hispanic whites, and non-Hispanic blacks in the United States

Objective To compare dietarty calcium intakes from food in Mexican Americans, Cubans, Puerto Ricans, non-Hispanic whites, and non-Hispanic blacks aged 11 through 74 years.Design Population survey data from the Hispanic Health and Nutrition Examination Survey and the second National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey were used to calculate calcium intake from a single 24-hour recall. These data were compared by age and sex between the five population groups. Food sources of calcium in the three Hispanic groups were also examined using 24-hour recall data.Subjects The sample consisted of 11,773 non-Hispanic whites, 1,728 non-Hispanic blacks, 4,739 Mexican Americans, 1,076 Cubans, and 1,835 Puerto Ricans. Main outcome measures Mean calcium intake, percentage intake of Recommended Dietary Allowance, and, for Hispanics, food sources of calcium.Statistical analyses Means were compared within age and sex groups between the five population group using a t test. Results Calcium intakes from food in three Hispanic groups were similar to intakes of non-Hispanic whites and higher than intakes of non-Hispanic blacks. Although dairy foods were the main sources of calcium for Hispanics, corn tortillas were important calcium sources among Mexican Americans. Women consumed less calcium than the Recommended Dietary Allowance in all age and racial or ethnic groups.Applications When assessing calcium intakes of the three Hispanic groups, ethnic differences in food sources of calcium need to be considered. Efforts to increase calcium intake in Hispanics also need to account for ethnic differences.     

A Review of Dietary Surveys in the Adult South African Population from 2000 to 2015

One serious concern of health policymakers in South Africa is the fact that there is no national data on the dietary intake of adult South Africans. The only national dietary study was done in children in 1999. Hence, it becomes difficult to plan intervention and strategies to combat malnutrition without national data on adults. The current review consequently assessed all dietary studies in adults from 2000 to June 2015 in an attempt to portray typical adult dietary intakes and to assess possible dietary deficiencies. Notable findings were that, in South Africa micronutrient deficiencies are still highly prevalent and energy intakes varied between very low intakes in informal settlements to very high intakes in urban centers. The most commonly deficient food groups observed are fruit and vegetables, and dairy. This has been attributed to high prices and lack of availability of these food groups in poorer urban areas and townships. In rural areas, access to healthy foods also remains a problem. A national nutrition monitoring system is recommended in order to identify dietary deficiencies in specific population groups.     

Dietary vitamin D intake is not associated with 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 or parathyroid hormone in elderly subjects,whereas the calcium-to-phosphate ratio affects parathyroid hormone

This cross-sectional study investigates whether serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D₃ [25(OH)D₃] and intact parathyroid hormone (iPTH) are affected by vitamin D, calcium, or phosphate intake in 140 independently living elderly subjects from Germany (99 women and 41 men; age, 66-96 years). We hypothesized that habitual dietary intakes of vitamin D, calcium, and phosphate are not associated with 25(OH)D₃ or iPTH and that body mass index confounds these associations. Serum 25(OH)D₃ and iPTH were measured by an electrochemiluminescence immunoassay. Dietary intake was determined using a 3-day estimated dietary record. The median dietary intake levels of vitamin D, calcium, and phosphate were 3 μg/d, 999 mg/d, and 1250 mg/d, respectively. Multiple regression analyses confirmed that dietary vitamin D and calcium did not affect 25(OH)D₃ or iPTH; however, supplemental intakes of vitamin D and calcium were associated with 25(OH)D₃ after adjustment for age, sex, body composition, sun exposure, physical activity, and smoking. In addition, phosphate intake and the calcium-to-phosphate ratio were associated with iPTH after multiple adjustments. In a subgroup analysis, calcium and vitamin D supplements, as well as phosphate intake, were associated with 25(OH)D₃ and/or iPTH in normal-weight subjects only. Our results indicate that habitual dietary vitamin D and calcium intakes have no independent effects on 25(OH)D₃ or iPTH in elderly subjects without vitamin D deficiency, whereas phosphate intake and the calcium-to-phosphate ratio affect iPTH. However, vitamin D and calcium supplements may increase 25(OH)D₃ and decrease iPTH, even during the summer, but the impact of supplements may depend on body mass index.     

Daily dietary fibre intake of children, 2 to 3 years of age, living in Antwerp, Belgium

Daily dietary fibre intake of toddlers living in Antwerp (Belgium) have been calculated by weighted food records with subsequent conversion using computerised food composition tables. Dietary fibre intakes were also measured by the duplicate portion technique to evaluate the intakes of total, soluble and insoluble dietary fibre. Calculated dietary fibre intake was 10 ± 3 g/d. Measured intakes of total, soluble and insoluble dietary fibre were 14.5 ± 2.8 g/d, 6.0 ± 1.9 g/d, and 8.6 ± 1.6 g/d. Values about the fibre intakes between both methods differed for 31.7%. Bread contributed for more than one third of the total dietary fibre intake. The contributions of the other food groups were 15.1% for fruits, 14.5% for starchy foods and 13.9% for vegetables. The intakes of dietary fibre from bread by the toddlers in this study could be considered as high, whilst intakes from fruits and vegetables might be increased.     

Reduction in sodium chloride intake: effects on urinary Na, K and aldosterone output in healthy free-living adults

Eleven healthy free-living adults (six women, five men) weighed and recorded all food and drink consumed and collected all urine for two non-consecutive 7-day periods whilst eating their usual diet (Period 1) and attempting to reduce salt intake (Period 2). Bread (including pitta bread) provided on average a quarter of total Na intake of subjects in Period 1 so that wholemeal bread made without added salt was made available in Period 2. All subjects achieved substantial reductions (mean 65%) in Na intake in Period 2 with no change in K intake so that the Na:K molar ratio fell from 1.3 to 0.5. Urinary Na output closely followed intakes and there was a large increase (mean 11.2 μg/d) in aldosterone excretion with a non-significant increase in K output. Simple linear relationships which allow prediction of Na and K intake from the more easily measured urinary output were derived.