Recent trends in illicit drug trafficking from the Canadian perspective

Parts of south-west Asia where opium is illicitly produced have recently become the principal source of supply of heroin to Canada, accounting for 79 per cent of this drug on the illicit market. Heroin from parts of south-east Asia is expected, however, to regain a greater share of the market in the next few years. That may result in increased availability of heroin in Canada. The availability of cocaine has increased on the illicit market; some 57 per cent of this drug originated in Colombia in 1982. Cocaine is increasingly abused in Canada by an estimated 250,000 persons, and this trend seems likely to continue in the next few years. Cannabis plant, cannabis resin and liquid cannabis are the most readily available and widely abused illicit drugs. An illicit demand has been created for the more potent preparations of cannabis. The dramatic increase in armed robberies perpetrated by criminal groups to procure manufactured drugs is a relatively new and alarming trend. The illicit drug market in Canada is largely controlled by organized criminal syndicates.     

Cannabis-related Experiences and Rate of Cultivation: Would they change under a policy of decriminalization?

It has been argued by many involved in the treatment and prevention of drug-related problems that policies of prohibition have been largely ineffective, that they produce a range of health, social and economic harms, and may well have contributed to an increase in the use of some illicit drugs. Policy makers in some countries are considering the adoption of strategies which aim to reduce harm without necessarily eliminating drug use. One strategy has been to decriminalize some substances. In Australia, two States have decriminalized the use of cannabis, and other states are considering this move. Fifty-five cannabis users contacted through a Western Australian university completed an anonymous questionnaire which (i) explored their experiences as cannabis users under the current policy of prohibition where any use or possession is a criminal offence; and (ii) asked for their predictions about their cannabis-related behaviour under a theoretical system of cannabis policy based on the South Australian Cannabis Expiation Notice (CEN) system. Under a CEN system, personal use, possession and cultivation of cannabis for personal use is not a criminal offence and attracts a fine. Six key areas relating to cultivation of cannabis for personal use and minimizing harm associated with cannabis use were explored. The findings suggest that under a CEN-like system: cannabis users would probably cultivate significantly more of their personal-use cannabis; cannabis users' access to other illicit drugs, and use of other licit and illicit drugs, may be reduced; and use of the oral ingestion method of administration would probably increase. However, results suggest that under a CEN-like system: a black market for cannabis would probably still exist; consumption of cannabis by cannabis users, at least initially, may increase slightly; and the system would discriminate against the poorer segments of the population. This research provides some support for the introduction of an alternative model of cannabis policy to prohibition in States that operate like Western Australia. However, the CEN system is probably not the ideal system from a harm minimization perspective.     

Are cannabis users exposed to other drug use opportunities? Investigation of high‐risk drug exposure opportunities among young cannabis users in London

In a study of young cannabis users attending further education colleges across London which specifically excluded young heroin users or injecting drug users, 35% were found to have been offered heroin, 36% had been present during heroin smoking, and 12% present at injecting. Factors associated with these exposure opportunities were investigated. The proportion of friends who use drugs other than cannabis was also considered, both as an indicator of risk in its own right and as a possible mechanism for high-risk drug exposure opportunities involving heroin and/or injecting. Alcohol variables and interactional problems perceived by the study subjects to be caused by their own drug use were found to be predictive of the involvement of friends in drug use other than cannabis and of exposure to heroin and injecting drug use. Non-cannabis illicit drug use among friends was also found to be associated with offers of heroin and with having been present during injecting drug use by others. Interpretations of these data are considered and the need for more detailed study with an area of increasing public policy significance is discussed.     

When does the cutting of cocaine and heroin occur? The first large-scale study based on the chemical analysis of cocaine and heroin seizures in Switzerland

BackgroundIllicit drug profiling can provide knowledge about illicit drug markets, informing on the level of distribution and its evolution in space and time. Illicit drug profiling is usually limited to impurities originally present in the illicit drug (e.g. alkaloids, co-extracted compounds or by-products). However, the benefit of a comprehensive analysis of cutting agents in drug seizures for law enforcement agencies, intelligence and health policy has not been thoroughly investigated in the literature and is the focus of this research.AimThis research aims at assessing when and how cutting (i.e. adulteration and dilution) occurs in the supply chain by analysing cocaine and heroin seizures made between 2006 and 2015 in Switzerland.MethodsCocaine and heroin seizures made along the supply chain by law enforcement agencies in the Western region of Switzerland were investigated for adulteration and dilution. A total number of 7841 cocaine and 3476 heroin specimens coming from 1341 and 721 seizures, respectively, were analysed.ResultsThe results show that, for both illicit drugs, adulteration and/or dilution occur before arrival into Switzerland as well as in Switzerland. While cocaine is adulterated and diluted, heroin is only adulterated. Interestingly, the same mixture of adulterants (i.e. caffeine-paracetamol) is used to cut heroin at each step in the supply chain.ConclusionGaining knowledge about adulteration and dilution at different stages in the supply chain enhances our understanding of drug markets. It also highlights differences along the supply chain and in the distribution of both drugs in Switzerland.     

Programme base for the prevention of drug abuse in Yugoslavia

The article summarizes policies and strategies of a drug abuse control programme adopted by the Commission on Narcotic Drugs of the Federal Executive Council (federal Government) of Yugoslavia. Because it is on the main road between the Middle East and western Europe, Yugoslavia is increasingly being used by drug traffickers for the transit of heroin, cannabis and other drugs from their sources of production to illicit international markets. A small amount of heroin and other drugs spills over into the illicit channels in Yugoslavia, creating domestic demand for such drugs. According to annual reports, approximately 2,000 drug addicts have been registered in medical treatment facilities in urban areas, but it is estimated that some 10,000 people abuse narcotic drugs. The programme identifies action to be taken by different sectors of society concerned with drug problems. Emphasis is placed on preventing drug abuse, primarily by involving health and social services, parents and other members of the family, the school, the community, the work place and various social and non-governmental organizations. The programme also emphasizes the need for healthy activities for youth, personality development during adolescence and the elimination of factors that are conducive to drug abuse. The Customs and the police are making efforts to intensify their action against illicit drugs in transit in Yugoslavia and, to this end, plan to improve co-operation within the country and with their counterparts abroad and to improve their technical capability to combat drug trafficking.     

苯丙胺类兴奋剂在德国和欧洲的应用和治疗

背景和目的:概述苯丙胺类兴奋剂(ATS)如苯丙胺、甲基苯丙胺、摇头丸等在欧洲和德国的流行、消费模式和防治措施。在德国使用的非法物质中,大麻至今仍然是消费最广泛的非法药物。值得一提的数据是持续使用12月可卡因的为0.6%,苯丙胺为0.4%,摇头丸和迷幻蘑菇均为0.4%。海洛因、LSD、快克和可卡因的消费仍然限于在特定和更小范围的人群。2007年欧洲校园成瘾药物和其他药物调查项目的结果(the European School Survey Project on Addiction and other Drugs,ESPAD)显示,28%被调查的学生曾经尝试过某种非法药物(大麻、苯丙胺类、摇头丸、LSD、可卡因、快克或海洛因)(Krausetal.2008)。非法药物终生消费率(除了大麻)自2003年以来仍然几乎没有变化(10.0%vs.10.2%).在非法药物中(不包括大麻),苯丙胺类(6%)是最常被尝试的药物(一生中至少一次)。但是,与其它物质比较,苯丙胺类在德国的流行仍然不是非常广泛。闲暇和夜生活等中的药物滥用的预防措施仍然很缺乏。在一些城市(大多数是大城市),青少年中心,药物咨询机构或当地政府的团体项目已经制定了预防措施。他们通过网站或者传单宣传娱乐场所物质滥用的危害。在节日、聚会、夜总会或迪斯科舞厅的这些行动旨在提供药物滥用预防的信息。苯丙胺、甲基苯丙胺和摇头丸是欧洲最常用的非法药物。可卡因使用者的绝对数量可能更高,但就地理分布而言在许多国家一些合成药物仍然是继大麻后最常用的非法物质。而且,在一些国家苯丙胺的使用仍旧是药物滥用问题的重要部分,在治疗需求中占相当大的比例。最近的人群调查提示,欧洲各国家苯丙胺终生使用率(成年人,15-64a)在0到11.7%之间变化。平均3.5%的欧洲成年人报告曾经使用过至少一次苯丙胺。去年药物使用大大降低,欧洲人加权平均数为0.5%。据估计大约1千2百万欧洲人尝试过苯丙胺,大约2百万人在过去的一年使用过药物。要求对苯丙胺类为主的药物使用进行治疗的报道在大多数欧洲国家相对较少,主要在瑞典(34%),芬兰(23%),拉脱维亚(16%)和葡萄牙(11%)占相当大的比例。另四个国家(比利时,丹麦,德国,荷兰)的比例在6%和10%之间,其他国家的比例小于3%。在娱乐场所的药物滥用可提供一个研究使用苯丙胺类和摇头丸等行为的窗口。在这些场所药物滥用的估计数据特别高,多数药物使用发生在周末和假日。安全俱乐部指南旨在减少药物相关问题的发生机会,包括免费提供冷水、快速急救和宣传预防措施。国家专家提供了在夜总会这些措施的实施情况。总的说来,欧洲夜生活场所仅采用有限的预防和减少健康风险和药物使用的简单措施。宣传预防工作在19个国家中的少数夜总会开展。苯丙胺类的使用者通常在门诊药物服务机构获得治疗。在苯丙胺使用历史较为严重的国家中这样的门诊药物服务专门治疗这种类型的药物问题。大多数问题苯丙胺使用者可以在精神诊所或医院接受住院治疗。本文将介绍预防和治疗的方案。     

Polysubstance use among alcoholics.

Contemporary alcoholics often use multiple substances, but there is little systematic research on this. This study examines the drug use comorbidity of alcoholics (DSM diagnosis, frequency and quantity of drug use); the relationship between drinking and drug use; the relative severity of alcohol- and drug-related problems; and the validity of reports of illicit drug use. Data on substance use were collected from 248 treatment-seeking alcoholics using an expanded Time-line Follow-Back (TLFB) interview. Self-reports of substance use were validated with data from biological specimens (urine and hair). Lifetime diagnosis of joint alcohol and drug dependence/abuse was 64%. Two-thirds (68%) reported using drugs in the past 90 days: 33% powder cocaine; 29% crack cocaine; 15% heroin, and 24% cannabis. The mean proportions of exposed days on which users reported consuming a substance were 57% (alcohol), 26% (powder cocaine), 46% (crack cocaine), 47% (heroin), and 29% (cannabis). Subjects reported consuming an average of 14 standard drinks on a drinking day and $67 worth of drugs on a using day. Drug users reported drinking less than nonusers on a drinking day. Frequency of drinking and drug use were positively correlated; almost all drug users reported simultaneous drinking and drug use; and they rated drugs as the bigger problem. Considerable under-reporting of drug use occurred for the previous 3-4 days, but was more accurate for the previous month.     

The epidemiology of illicit drug use in Spain

On the basis of a review of the available information, this article summarizes the situation, patterns and trends in respect of the use of cannabis, heroin and other opiates, cocaine, amphetamines, hallucinogens and inhalants, as well as multiple drug use. The review clearly shows that since the early 1980s there has been an increasing trend in the use of drugs, particularly heroin and cannabis. Drug use predominantly affects young people. The use of two or more drugs simultaneously or successively, often involving alcohol, is reported as the most common pattern of drug use among youth. Drug use has become incorporated into the current youth culture, with all the individual, social and economic implications this engenders. The average age of users at first use of inhalants was 16.3 years, cannabis 17.5 years, hallucinogens 18.8 years, cocaine 20.6 years and amphetamines 23.5 years.     

Normal drug use: ethnographic fieldwork among an adult network of recreational drug users in inner London

A key debate in late 1990s Britain is the "normalization" of illicit drug use among young people. This qualitative research study explores recreational drug use (mainly cannabis and cocaine) among an adult friendship network in an inner London neighborhood. It finds that the use of these drugs is accepted as a normal and routine aspect of daily life. In addition to patterns of drug consumption and drug dealing, some aspects of risk perception are also described. Adults are neglected in current UK drug policy debates. "Normal" adult recreational drug use poses the need for a new public health policy agenda for the new century.     

What we can--and cannot--expect from school-based drug prevention

School-based drug prevention is a central component of drug control strategies. This paper assesses quantitatively its contributions in the United States from a social policy perspective. The social benefits per participant stemming from reduced drug use (∼$840 from tobacco, alcohol, cocaine and marijuana) appear to exceed the economic costs of running the programs (∼$150 per participant); while the benefits associated with reduced cocaine use alone (∼$300) exceed the costs, the corresponding figure for marijuana (∼$20) is small. Even if prevention reduced the use of other illicit drugs (e.g. heroin) by as much as it reduced use of cocaine, the majority of benefits would still stem from reductions in use of tobacco and alcohol, which has implications for how school-based drug prevention is funded and whether it is perceived more as a weapon in the war on illicit drugs or as a public health measure. Specific numeric results are subject to considerable uncertainty, but the basic character of the conclusions appears to be robust with respect to parameter uncertainty. The greatest uncertainties concern the permanence of prevention's effects and how to value instances of initiation being deferred but not completely prevented. [Caulkins JP, Pacula RL, Paddock S, Chiesa J. What we can—and cannot—expect from school-based drug prevention. Drug Alcohol Rev 2004;23:79-87]     

Concurrent validity of a brief self-report Drug Use Frequency measure

This study examined two sources of concurrent validity information for a brief Drug Use Frequency (DUF) measure--the well-validated Timeline Followback (TLFB) measure and knowledgeable collateral informants (i.e., spouses)--for 106 male alcoholic patients and their female partners (treatment sample couples) and for 130 male and female participants without current alcohol/drug problems (community sample couples). Results showed generally good concurrent validity of self-reported frequency of illicit drug use on the DUF. Treatment sample results showed high correlations (a) between patient self-reported frequency of drug use on the DUF and on the TLFB for all drug types and (b) between self- and collateral reports on the DUF for male patients and their female partners for the most commonly abused drugs (cannabis, cocaine, and heroin). Community sample results showed (a) high correlations between self- and collateral reports on the DUF for male and female participants for frequency of cannabis and cocaine use and (b) average percent agreement of 99% for all drug types on whether or not male and female participants had used each drug.     

Drug residues in used syringes in Switzerland: A comparative study

Harm reduction services, including needle‐exchange programmes, have been implemented in Switzerland for over 20 years. Their main aim is to lessen the negative social and/or physical consequences associated with illicit drug consumption and, therefore, improve prevention messages. To this end, knowledge of illicit drug consumption practices is necessary. Periodic self‐report surveys are the primary source of data for monitoring drug users’ behaviour. Analysis of residual content of used syringes can bring further and objective knowledge about consumed products through analytically confirmed data. Used syringes were sampled in 2 syringe‐exchange facilities in Lausanne. These structures are a bus where the users bring back their syringes (ABS) and an automatic injecting kit dispenser (AIKD). Once syringes were collected, a validated gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) method was implemented in order to detect drugs (licit or illicit) contained in the residual content of used syringes. Cocaine was the most common drug detected alone (39% in ABS and 31% in AIKD), followed by the simultaneous detection of heroin and cocaine (12% and 17%) and heroin and midazolam (12% and 17%). The differences between the illicit drugs distribution of used syringes collected in AIKD and ABS were not statistically significant. Analysis of residual content of used syringes as a monitoring tool is an original approach that has already led to a better understanding of the habits of drug‐injection users. Over the long term, this approach is a powerful tool to track and detect new consumption practices in a quasi‐real‐time.     

Substance Use Among High-School Students: Relationships with Temperament,Personality Traits,and Parental Care Perception

Alcohol use, “alcohol abuse,” and illicit drug use were investigated in a representative sample of 1076 urban, northern Italian high school students aged 14 to 19 years in 2001. In addition to questions on substance use, the participants were asked about school achievements and perceived substance use among friends. All the students were submitted to Zuckerman Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS) scale, Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory (BDHI), and Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI). Lifetime alcohol use was found in 80.5%, “alcohol abuse” in 37.7%, cannabis use in 26.2%, ecstasy in 2.8%, heroin in 3.8%, and cocaine in 8.3% of the students: gender differences were significant for alcohol use, “alcohol abuse” and ecstasy use, with male subjects outnumbering females, but not for reported cannabis, heroin, and cocaine use. Early substance use onset among adolescents aged 14–16 years was detected. Higher sensation seeking on SSS, social coping impairment on EPQ, direct aggressiveness on BDHI, poor school achievements, and lower parental care on PBI were found associated with illicit drug use and “alcohol abuse” (multiple drugs users). Increased levels of aggressiveness and sensation seeking were evidenced both in minimal experimenters (ME) and habitual users (HU), without any significant difference, in comparison with abstinent students. Similarly, ME scored higher than abstinent subjects on EPQ for social coping impairment, but lower than HU. Parental care perception was lower in HU, but not in ME with, respect to abstinent subjects. Pearson inverse correlation was demonstrated between PBI scores and EPQ maladaptation and BDHI aggressiveness. Data from this preliminary pilot study suggest that temperamental traits and personality changes may be associated to early substance use “proneness” and reduced perception of parental care.     

Assessing the Real Dangers of Illicit Drugs - Risk Analysis as the Way Forward?

How risky is heroin? How risky is ecstasy, cocaine or cannabis? Well it depends on who you talk to, what position they are coming from and what agenda they want to pursue. There is, therefore, a great deal of variance in the understanding and propagation of the dangers attached to illicit drug use. Too little of this variance however is based on reliable and appropriate risk appraisal and too much is based on historical attribution and emotive reasoning. As an assessment of prospective danger and the basis of ongoing and future policy, risk analysis and information pertaining to drug risks has got to be less subject to personal and emotional bias and more reliant on reasoned, comparative and reliable appraisal of the risks than at present. Although drugs control policy has always, in spirit at least, been strongly related to notions of dangerousness or risk it has not always (and it remains true today) been based on very sound analysis. In fact “proper” risk analysis has only really developed in the last thirty years or so and is, in many ways, still in its infancy (Renn, 1998). Despite this development however, risk assessment in relation to illicit drugs remains woefully defi-     

Screening for drugs in oral fluid: illicit drug use and drug driving in a sample of Queensland motorists

Police Services in a number of Australian states have indicated random roadside drug testing will be implemented to target drug driving. This paper outlines research conducted to provide an estimate of the prevalence of drug driving in a sample of Queensland drivers. Oral fluid samples were collected from 781 drivers who volunteered to participate at Random Breath Testing (RBT) sites in a large Queensland regional area. Illicit substances tested for included cannabis (delta 9 tetrahydrocannibinol [THC]), amphetamine type substances, heroin and cocaine. Drivers also completed a self-report questionnaire regarding their drug-related driving behaviour. Samples that were drug-positive at initial screening were sent to a government laboratory for confirmation. Oral fluid samples from 27 participants (3.5%) were confirmed positive for at least one illicit substance. The most common drugs detected in oral fluid were cannabis (delta 9 THC) (n = 13) followed by amphetamine type substances (n = 11). A key finding was that cannabis was also confirmed as the most common self-reported drug combined with driving and that individuals who tested positive to any drug through oral fluid analysis were also more likely to report the highest frequency of drug driving. Furthermore, a comparison between drug vs drink driving detection rates for the study period revealed a higher detection rate for drug driving (3.5%) vs drink driving (0.8%). This research provides evidence that drug driving is relatively prevalent on Queensland Roads. The paper will further outline the study findings and present possible directions for future drug driving research. [Davey J, Leal N, Freeman J. Screening for drugs in oral fluid: illicit drug use and drug driving in a sample of Queensland motorists. Drug Alcohol Rev 2007;26:301 - 307]     

Substance use among high-school students: relationships with temperament, personality traits, and parental care perception

Alcohol use, "alcohol abuse," and illicit drug use were investigated in a representative sample of 1076 urban, northern Italian high school students aged 14 to 19 years in 2001. In addition to questions on substance use, the participants were asked about school achievements and perceived substance use among friends. All the students were submitted to Zuckerman Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS) scale, Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory (BDHI), and Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI). Lifetime alcohol use was found in 80.5%, "alcohol abuse" in 37.7%, cannabis use in 26.2%, ecstasy in 2.8%, heroin in 3.8%, and cocaine in 8.3% of the students: gender differences were significant for alcohol use, "alcohol abuse" and ecstasy use, with male subjects outnumbering females, but not for reported cannabis, heroin, and cocaine use. Early substance use onset among adolescents aged 14-16 years was detected. Higher sensation seeking on SSS, social coping impairment on EPQ, direct aggressiveness on BDHI, poor school achievements, and lower parental care on PBI were found associated with illicit drug use and "alcohol abuse" (multiple drugs users). Increased levels of aggressiveness and sensation seeking were evidenced both in minimal experimenters (ME) and habitual users (HU), without any significant difference, in comparison with abstinent students. Similarly, ME scored higher than abstinent subjects on EPQ for social coping impairment, but lower than HU. Parental care perception was lower in HU, but not in ME with, respect to abstinent subjects. Pearson inverse correlation was demonstrated between PBI scores and EPQ maladaptation and BDHI aggressiveness. Data from this preliminary pilot study suggest that temperamental traits and personality changes may be associated to early substance use "proneness" and reduced perception of parental care.     

How do Australian news media depict illicit drug issues? An analysis of print media reporting across and between illicit drugs, 2003-2008

Background

Media reporting on illicit issues has been frequently criticised for being sensationalised, biased and narrow. Yet, there have been few broad and systematic analyses of the nature of reporting. Using a large sample and methods commonly adopted in media communications analysis this paper sought to identify the dominant media portrayals used to denote illicit drugs in Australian newspapers and to compare and contrast portrayals across drug types.

Methods

A retrospective content analysis of Australian print media was carried out over the period 2003-2008 from a sample comprised of 11 newspapers. Articles that contained one or more mention of five different drugs (or derivatives) were identified: cannabis, amphetamines, ecstasy, cocaine and heroin. A sub-sample of 4397 articles was selected for media content analysis (with 2045 selected for full content analysis) and a large number of text elements coded for each. Key elements included topic, explicit or implicit messages about the consequences of drugs/use and three value dimensions: overall tone, whether drugs were portrayed as a crisis issue and moral evaluations of drugs/use.

Results

The dominant media portrayals depicted law enforcement or criminal justice action (55%), but most articles were reported in a neutral manner, in the absence of crisis framings. Portrayals differed between drugs, with some containing more narrow frames and more explicit moral evaluations than others. For example, heroin was disproportionately framed as a drug that will lead to legal problems. In contrast, ecstasy and cocaine were much more likely to emphasise health and social problems.

Conclusion

Media reporting on illicit drugs is heavily distorted towards crime and deviance framings, but may be less overtly sensationalised, biased and narrowly framed than previously suggested. This is not to suggest there is no sensationalism or imbalance, but this appears more associated with particular drug types and episodes of heightened public concern.