微创Chevron合并外侧软组织松解治疗轻中度拇外翻畸形的短期疗效分析

目的:探讨微创Chevron合并外侧软组织松解治疗轻中度拇外翻畸形的短期疗效。方法:自2019年1月至2021年12月,采用微创Chevron截骨加外侧软组织松解术式治疗67例(80足)轻中度拇外翻患者,男5例(6足),女62例(74足);年龄20～60(47.2±9.7)岁;轻度(拇外翻角≤20°)54例(64足),中度(20°<拇外翻角≤40°)13例(16足)。比较术前与末次随访时拇外翻角(hallux valugs angle,HVA),Ⅰ-Ⅱ跖骨间角(Ⅰ-Ⅱ intermetatarsal anlge,Ⅰ-Ⅱ IMA),远端跖骨关节角(distal metatarsal articular angle,DMAA),籽骨Hardy评分变化,并采用北美足踝外科协会拇趾-跖趾关节(American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society’s Hallux Metatarsophalanged-Interphalangeal,AOFAS Hallux MTP-IP)评分进行疗效评价。结果:67例患者获得随访,时间6～23(13.7±6.5)个月。术...     

不同类型足母外翻截骨矫形术式的选择

目的 分析不同手术方法治疗不同类型（足母）外翻的疗效.方法自2009年4月至2013年3月昆明市第一人民医院手术治疗足母外翻86 例（110足）.根据（足母）外翻畸形程度不同分为3组.A组（中度）：共36 例（48足）,男2 例,女34 例;年龄22～70 岁,平均46 岁;（足母）外翻角（hallux valgus angle,HVA）24°～36°,平均30°,第1、2跖骨夹角（intermetatarsal angle,IMA）12°～16°,平均14°;手术方法采用McBride加第1跖骨头颈部楔形截骨术.B组（重度）：共40 例（51足）,男3 例,女37 例;年龄38～62 岁,平均50 岁;HVA 28°～44°,平均36°,IMA 14°～18°,平均16°;手术方法采用McBride加第1跖骨基底部楔形截骨术.C组（极重度）：共10 例（11足）,男1 例,女9 例;年龄64～82 岁,平均73 岁;HVA 45°～75°,平均60°,IMA 18°～20°,平均19°;手术方法采用B组（重度）术式＋Akin手术.结果 随访6～36个月,平均21个月.参照美国足踝外科学会Marylland评分系统评分,A组优30足,良16足,可2足,优良率95.8%;HVA平均矫正18°,IMA平均矫正7°.B组优36足,良12足,可1足,优良率94.1%;HVA平均矫正21°,IMA平均矫正8°.C组优7足,良3足,可1足,优良率90.9%;HVA平均矫正42°,IMA平均矫正8°.结论 （足母）外翻的病理基础主要为第1跖骨内翻的骨性畸形与（足母）收肌高度紧张挛缩的软组织畸形,手术应针对有明显临床症状的患者.手术设计应重点解除骨与软组织的畸形.     

改良McBride术式治疗(足母)外翻

(足母)外翻畸形是足骨第1序列最常见的畸形.本院于2001年5月～2002年12月对(足母)外翻角(Hallux valgus angle,HVA)偏大、第1、2跖间角(Intermetatarsal angle,IMA)不超过15°的中青年(足母)外翻畸形患者采用本术式治疗,经随访观察效果良好.     

拇趾外翻足负重位和非负重位下X线测量指标与跖骨头下疼痛的相关性分析

目的：通过拇外翻足负重位和非负重位X线测量指标分析,探讨拇外翻畸形时足弓塌陷程度与跖骨头下疼痛的相关性.方法：对2012年5月至2012年10月120例（240足）拇外翻患者跖骨头下疼痛观察并摄患足负重位和非负重位下X线正侧位片,分别测量拇外翻角（HVA）、1-2跖间角（IM1-2）、1-5跖间角（IM1-5）、内弓顶角和前弓角,比较其负重与非负重位下的差异,并分析其（除HVA）差值与拇外翻畸形、跖骨头下疼痛的相关性.结果：120例拇外翻患者240足中148足存在跖骨头下疼痛,拇外翻足负重位IM1-2、IM 1-5、内弓顶角较非负重位均明显增加,而拇外翻角和前弓角则反之;负重与非负重位下IM1-2、IM1-5、内弓顶角的差值与拇外翻畸形程度及跖骨头下疼痛密切相关.结论：拇外翻足弓塌陷程度随拇外翻畸形的增加而加重,跖骨头下疼痛随着足弓塌陷程度加重而加重.通过足负重、非负重位下X线测量指标分析可评价拇外翻足弓塌陷程度,对防治跖骨头下疼痛有重要意义.     

Scarf截骨联合软组织平衡松解治疗重度拇外翻

目的：探讨Scarf截骨联合软组织平衡治疗重度拇外翻的手术疗效。方法：回顾性分析2019年6月至2021年6月采用Scarf截骨联合软组织平衡手术治疗的38例（50足）重度拇外翻患者的临床资料,男6例（8足）,女32例（42足）;年龄29～64(54.7±6.8)岁;左侧26足,右侧24足;病程5～23(12.4±3.9)年。比较手术前后拇外翻角（hallux valgus angle,HVA）、第1、2跖骨间角（intermetatarsal angle,IMA）、跖骨远端关节面角（distal metatarsal articular angle,DMAA）,观察术后并发症发生情况。术前和末次随访时采用美国足与踝关节协会（American orthopedic foot ankle society,AOFAS）评分评价前足功能恢复情况,采用视觉模拟评分法（visual analogue scale,VAS）评价患者疼痛缓解程度。结果：38例患者（50足）均获随访,时间15～23(18.3±3.2)个月。HVA、IMA、DMAA术前分别为（44.61±3.92）°、（18.74±2....     

TPS动力系统微创治疗(足母)外翻畸形

我们自 2 0 0 2年 8月 - 2 0 0 3年 2月采用TPS动力系统微创手术治疗外翻 34例 6 1足 ,具有截骨手术切口小、对软组织损伤小、术后恢复快、病人可早期下地等优点 ,疗效满意。1　一般资料外翻病人共 34例 6 1足 ,其中女 33例 6 0足 ,男 1例 1足 ;年龄 2 2～ 70岁 ,平均 4 8 4 8岁。 2 7例双足 ,7例单足 (其中左足 5例 ,右足 2例 )。合并第 2趾锤状趾 3例 ,第 2趾下胼胝形成 2 5例。发病时间 1～ 30年。平均 2 3 2年。外翻角 (HVA) 2 5°～ 4 5° ,平均 33 5°;第 1、2跖骨间角 (IMA) 8°～2 0° ,平均 12 36°。2　手术器械　　美…     

Schroth康复锻炼计划对特发性脊柱侧凸青少年患者脊柱和足部的矫正效果

目的 探讨Schroth康复锻炼计划对特发性脊柱侧凸(idiopathic scoliosis, IS)青少年患者脊柱和足部的矫正效果。方法 选择2019年1月～2020年12月在该院接受康复治疗的47例IS患者作为研究对象,患者均采用Schroth康复锻炼。观察患者干预前后侧凸Cobb角、Adam向前弯曲测试(Adam Test)、腰椎前凸角和跟骨外翻角。结果 干预后,患者Cobb角、Adam Test结果、腰椎前凸角、左侧跟骨外翻角、右侧跟骨外翻角均较干预前显著减小(P<0.05);亚组分析显示,侧凸10～19°组和侧凸20～29°组患者干预后Cobb角、Adam Test结果、腰椎前凸角、左侧跟骨外翻角、右侧跟骨外翻角均较干预前显著减小(P<0.05),但2个亚组患者Cobb角、Adam Test结果、腰椎前凸角、左侧跟骨外翻角、右侧跟骨外翻角的变化差值差异无统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论 Schroth康复锻炼计划治疗IS可有效改善侧凸、Adam Test结果、腰椎前凸和跟骨外翻,不同侧凸Cobb角的患者均可从锻炼中获益,该康复方案是治疗IS的有效方法。     

旋转Scarf截骨术治疗拇外翻合并第1跖骨旋转

目的：探讨旋转Scarf截骨术治疗拇外翻（hallux valgus,HV）合并第1跖骨旋转的临床疗效。方法：自2018年1月至2019年10月采用旋转Scarf截骨术治疗35例（40足）HV合并第1跖骨旋转畸形患者,其中男5例,女30例;年龄25～76(40.32±5.43)岁。观察并比较手术前后拇外翻角（hallux valgus angle,HVA）,第1、2跖骨间角（intermetatarsal angle,IMA）,第1跖骨远端关节面角（distal metatarsal articular angle,DMAA）,第1跖骨长度（the first metatarsal length,FML）,术后采用美国矫形骨科学会足踝外科学组（American Orthopedic Foot and Ankle Society,AOFAS）拇趾-跖趾-趾间关节评分和疼痛视觉模拟评分（visual analogue scale,VAS）系统进行功能评价。结果 ：35例（40足）均获得随访,时间12～36(14.35±3.62)个月。HVA、IMA和DMAA分别由术前的（36.32±4.5...     

关于(足母)外翻手术治疗对策的讨论

[目的]分析不同手术方法治疗不同类型(足母)外翻的疗效.[方法]自2003年4月～2006年4月本院手术治疗(足母)外翻165例(210足).根据(足母)外翻畸形程度不同分为3组.A组:共96例(128足),男21例,女75例;年龄20～65岁,平均42.5岁.(足母)外翻角(hallux valgus angle,HVA)25°～35°,平均30°,第1、2跖骨夹角(intermetatarsal angle,IMA)12°～16°,平均14°.手术方法采用McBride加第1跖骨基底楔形截骨术.B组:共55例(61足),男11例,女34例;年龄38～62岁,平均50岁.HVA 28°～44°,平均36°,IMA 14°～18°,平均16°.手术方法与A组相同,另加第2跖趾关节成形术.C组:共15例(21足),男10例,女5例;年龄64～82岁,平均73岁.HVA 45°～75°,平均60°,IMA 18°～20°,平均19°.手术方法采用Kell手术.[结果]参照美国足踝外科学会Maryland评分系统.随访6～24个月,平均15个月.A组,优98足,良24足,可6足,优良率95.3%.平均HVA矫正18°,平均IMA矫正7°.B组,优46足,良12足,可3足,优良率95.1%.平均HVA矫正21°,平均IMA矫正8°.C组,优11足,良8足,可3足,优良率90.5%.平均HVA矫正42°,IMA无矫正.[结论](足母)外翻的病理基础主要为第1跖骨内翻的骨性畸形与(足母)收肌高度紧张挛缩的软组织畸形.手术应针对有明显临床症状的病人.手术的设计应重点解除骨性与软组织的畸形.只要注意手术操作与手术方法,手术并发证是可以避免的.     

距足母囊近端截骨并钛板内固定治疗中重度足母外翻

目的探讨距足母囊近端2.0 cm处Z型截骨并T型微型钛板内固定治疗中重度足母外翻的临床疗效。方法2009年11月至2013年6月,对50例(81足)中重度足母外翻患者行第一跖骨远端Z型截骨后T型微型钛板内固定治疗。结果术后随访3~36个月,患者足母外翻角(halluxv algus angle,HVA)减少了11°~23°,平均13.1°,跖骨间角(intermetatarsal angle,IMA)减少了5°~10°,平均6.6°。采用美国足踝矫形学会Maryland足功能评分系统评分:90~100分,79足,80~89分2足,优良率100%,未见感染,截骨处均获骨性愈合,畸形无复发。结论距足母囊近端截骨并微型钛板内固定治疗中重度足母外翻疗效可靠,值得推广。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.