营养干预对高龄结直肠癌患者腹腔镜手术疗效的影响

目的:探索高龄腹腔镜结直癌患者术前营养风险发生情况及术后营养支持的应用状况,为精准化临床诊疗及干预策略提供临床研究依据。方法:选取2016年1月至2020年12月收治的高龄(≥80岁)腹腔镜结直肠癌手术患者作为研究对象,分析患者一般信息、诊断信息、医嘱信息等,采用营养风险筛查2002(NRS2002)评估患者营养风险,分析不同程度营养风险患者、术后营养支持方式对短期临床结局(包括住院总时间、术后住院时间及住院总费用)的影响。结果:共纳入387例患者,均存在不同程度的营养风险,其中一般营养风险(3分≤NRS2002<5分)194例(50.13%),严重营养风险(NRS2002≥5分)193例(49.87%)。患者均于术后接受营养支持治疗,其中单独肠外营养(PN)支持率48.32%, PN联合肠内营养(EN)支持率51.68%。一般营养风险组中,PN亚组术后住院时间[(12.12±2.72)d vs.(7.80±1.35)d]、住院总时间[(18.40±8.28)d vs.(12.12±2.72)d]长于PN+EN亚组,住院总费用[(5.22±1.73)万元vs.(4.07±0.99...     

术前运用NRS2002评估食管癌患者营养风险及临床结局的研究

目的运用营养风险筛查2002(NRS2002)对食管癌术前患者进行营养风险筛查,了解营养风险评分结果和临床结局发生之间的关系。方法运用NRS2002方法对上海交通大学医学院附属仁济医院胸外科于2012年3月至2013年3月收治并手术的225例食管癌患者进行术前NRS2002营养风险筛查,其中男136例、女89例,年龄41~85(64.0±8.2)岁。总评分为疾病严重程度评分、营养状况评分、年龄评分(≥70岁年龄评分为1分,70岁为0分)3项的总和。临床结局设定为术后并发症发生率、死亡率和住院时间。结果术前评分≥3分者为75例(33.3%),3分者为150例(66.7%);NRS2002评分≥3分者术后并发症发生率高于NRS2002评分3分者,差异有统计学意义(26.7%vs.12.0%,P0.05);NRS2002评分≥3分者总住院时间长于NRS2002评分3者,差异有统计学意义[(29.80±7.94)d vs.(15.30±2.05)d,P0.05]。Logistic回归分析结果发现NRS2002、基础疾病、手术方式是术后并发症发生的危险因素。结论术前NRS2002评分≥3分的食管癌患者术后并发症发生率升高,住院时间延长,这提示有必要对于术前营养风险评分≥3分的食管癌患者进行适当及科学的营养干预。NRS2002可以作为评估食管癌术后营养风险发生的预测指标。     

应用营养风险筛查2002评分系统对胃癌患者术前营养风险的评估

目的 应用营养风险筛查2002(nutritional risk screening 2002,NRS 2002)评分系统对胃癌患者的术前营养风险进行评分,并观察其在我国胃癌患者的适用性及对患者术后结果的影响.方法 对我院自2004年1月至2007年12月收治的需行手术治疗的胃癌患者314例,依照结合中国体质指数正常值的NRS 2002评分标准进行术前营养风险评分,观察其对术后并发症、死亡率及住院天数的影响.结果 本组可适用NRS 2002评分系统比例占实际总人数的93.1%.术前营养评分≥3分者125例,占胃癌患者的39.8%.术前营养评分≥3分组中的手术后并发症发生率(26.2%)高于术前营养评分＜3分组(13.8%)(P＜0.05),术前营养评分≥3分组中平均住院天数[(19±12)d]高于术前营养评分＜3分组[(14±7)d],P＜0.01.利用多元logistics回归分析,术前营养评分及胃癌临床病理分期发生术后并发症的OR值分别为0.642(P＜0.05)及1.596(P＜0.01).住院天数与NRS2002评分结果之间的相关系数为0.177(P=0.002).结论 胃癌患者术前营养评分(NRS 2002)≥3分预示在术后更易发生并发症和更长的住院时间,提示对术前营养评分(NRS 2002)≥3分的患者在术前需要加强营养支持.     

普外科老年病人手术前后营养风险筛查及临床意义

目的 研究普通外科老年病人手术前后营养风险筛查和病人营养状况恢复情况以及与并发症的相关性.方法 对684例符合条件的普通外科老年手术病人于入院后24小时和术后进行NRS2002评分,并通过对病人手术前后血红蛋白、血清白蛋白(ALB)和前白蛋白(PA)的变化,观察病人手术前后机体营养恢复情况,记录并发症的发生率.结果 术前NRS2002评分≥3分者173例(25.3%),＜3分者511例(74.7%);术后NRS2002评分≥3分和＜3分者分别为316例(46.2%)和368例(45.7%).在术前NRS2002≥3分的病人术后并发症发生率为42%.在NRS2002＜3分的病人术后并发症发生率22.9%.存在营养风险的患者并发症的发生率显著高于不存在营养风险的患者(P＜0.05).术后血红蛋白、血清白蛋白和前白蛋白的异常发生率显著高于术前(P＜0.05).结论 普外科老年病人存在的营养风险较高,术前NRS2002≥3分的病人营养状况恢复慢,并发症的发生率升高.     

胃肠外科手术患者营养风险发生研究

目的探讨胃肠外科手术患者营养风险发生及营养支持情况。方法对我院2013年1月至2013年6月胃肠外科收治的252例胃肠外科手术患者采用NRS 2002营养风险筛查工具进行营养风险筛查,根据筛查结果研究NRS 2002营养筛查工具的适用率、胃肠外科手术患者营养风险发生率、营养支持率、营养风险及营养支持治疗对患者住院时间及并发症发生率等临床结局的影响。结果 NRS 2002营养风险筛查工具适用率为98.4%,适用于我院胃肠外科手术患者。我院胃肠外科手术患者的营养风险发生率为40.3%,其中无营养风险手术患者术后住院时间及术后并发症发生率均明显低于存在营养风险手术患者(P0.05)。通过有效的营养支持,存在营养风险的手术患者临床结局得到明显改善(P0.05),不存在营养风险的手术患者则无明显改善(P0.05)。结论 NSR2002适用于胃肠外科手术患者,对存在营养风险的患者及时进行有效的营养支持治疗可改善患者的住院时间及术后并发症等临床结局,促进患者康复。     

结直肠癌患者术后营养状态对放化疗耐受性的影响研究

目的探讨结直肠癌患者术后营养状态对放化疗耐受性的影响。方法回顾性分析本院180例接受腹腔镜结直肠癌根治术患者的临床资料,患者术后均接受三维适形调强放疗联合化疗干预。根据营养风险筛查表(NRS 2002)记录放化疗前1 w患者营养状态,根据放化疗治疗和完成情况记录放化疗耐受性及不良反应发生情况,分析结直肠癌患者术后营养状态与放化疗耐受性的关系。结果 180例结直肠癌患者中NRS 2002评分≥3分者97例(占53.89%,为有营养风险组),83例NRS2002评分3分(占46.11%,为无营养风险组)。129例患者顺利完成放化疗,12例延迟完成,共141例耐受性良好,39例耐受性差。NRS 2002营养状态与患者放化疗耐受性和不良反应分级呈正相关(r=0.426、0.507,P=0.023、0.000)。NRS 2002评分3分是影响患者放化疗耐受性的独立保护因素(OR=0.487,P=0.000),不良反应分级≥Ⅲ级是影响患者放化疗耐受性的独立危险因素(OR=1.984,P=0.000)。结论结直肠癌术后患者多存在营养不良,营养不良是患者对术后放化疗耐受性的独立影响因素,营养状态监测和营养支持应是结直肠癌综合治疗的重要内容。     

骨创住院患者营养风险筛查及营养支持应用状况

目的调查、分析骨创住院患者的营养风险发生率和临床营养支持的应用状况,为指导骨创住院患者临床营养支持提供依据。方法采用营养风险筛查(nutrition risk screening,NRS)2002对108例骨创住院患者进行营养风险筛查,NRS 2002总评分大于等于3分存在营养风险;同时对其营养支持应用状况进行调查,进行营养风险和营养支持的关系分析。结果采用了NRS 2002的108例骨创住院患者中,66.7%存在营养风险;但存在营养风险的患者未完全进行营养支持,与城乡差异无关(P0.05);营养支持后,患者血清白蛋白含量明显增高,与营养支持前比较,差异有统计学意义(P0.001);营养支持前后的风险筛查总评分比较,差异有统计学意义(P0.05)。结论骨创住院患者的营养风险发生率较高,营养支持可以改善患者预后,但患者的营养支持却存在一定的不合理性。对骨创住院患者及早进行营养风险筛查和合理的营养支持具有重要意义。     

营养风险及营养支持对住院患者临床结局的影响

目的了解住院患者营养风险发生率和营养支持状况,探讨营养支持对有营养风险住院患者临床结局的影响。方法应用营养风险筛查工具(NRS2002)对肝胆外科、胃肠外科、胃肠消化科、消化内科1 384例住院患者进行营养风险筛查;将NRS评分≥3分的患者,以有、无营养支持分为2个队列,观察并记录患者住院期间的营养状态、营养支持及临床结局,分析营养支持对营养风险患者的并发症、住院时间的影响。结果患者营养风险发生率和营养支持使用率分别为27.67%、50.07%;其中胃肠外科患者营养风险发生率(39.87%)最高;有341例有营养风险的患者纳入前瞻性队列研究:有营养支持的242例(70.97%),无营养支持的99例(29.03%);有、无营养支持队列并发症的发生率分别为15.16%、20.20%,但差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。饮食减少量、体质量减少量、营养状况、疾病严重程度为有营养风险患者感染性并发症的影响因素(P0.05,P0.01)。结论住院患者营养风险的发生率较高,营养风险导致患者住院时间延长,并发症发生率增高。医护人员应提高对住院患者营养风险的评估意识和能力,制定规范的营养支持计划。     

单县中心医院普外科住院患者营养风险筛查报告

目的:应用营养风险筛查工具(NRS2002)调查单县中心医院普外科患者住院期间营养风险、营养不足的发生率及营养支持应用情况,探讨NRS2002在单县中心医院普外科住院患者中的适用性。方法:收集2013年1—8月入住我院治疗的普外科(包括血管外科、肝胆外科、胃肠外科和烧伤外科)患者746例。所有患者入院后24 h内应用NRS2002进行营养风险筛查,记录营养风险、营养不足及营养支持应用情况。结果:644例患者完成营养风险筛查,其中营养风险的发生率为9.1%,营养不足和肥胖的发生率分别为2%和13%。89.3%具有营养风险的患者接受了营养支持,10.2%不存在营养风险的患者接受了营养支持治疗。结论:NRS2002是一种简单可行的营养风险筛查工具,能够对单县中心医院普外科住院患者营养状况进行有效评价;在营养风险筛查基础上应用营养支持尚待进一步规范。     

胃肠道肿瘤患者术前营养风险筛查80例分析

目的利用营养风险筛查2002(NRS2002)对我院胃肠外科胃肠道肿瘤患者进行手术前后营养风险筛查,并分析营养风险、营养支持与临床结局的关系。方法选取2010年12月到2011年5月在我院胃肠外科住院的胃肠道肿瘤患者80例,按NRS2002系统评分,并跟踪调查营养应用情况、术后并发症及住院时间。结果存在营养风险和无营养风险患者的营养支持率分别为36.3%和20.0%。肠外营养和肠内营养比值为1.4:1。有营养风险的患者并发症发生率为66.3%。明显高于无营养风险的患者的33.7%(P<0.05);有营养风险的患者平均住院时间为27.31±9.34天,高于无营养风险的23.14±7.50(P<0.05)。结论与无营养风险者相比,有营养风险的胃肠道肿瘤患者术后并发症明显增加,住院时间延长;临床营养支持尚存不合理应用。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.