The effect of admission spontaneous hypothermia on patients with severe traumatic brain injury

Introduction

Recent information has emerged regarding the harmful effects of spontaneous hypothermia at time of admission in trauma patients. However the volume of evidence regarding the role of spontaneous hypothermia in TBI patients is inadequate.

Methods

We performed secondary data analysis of 10 years of the Pennsylvania trauma outcome study (PTOS) database. Unadjusted comparisons of the association of admission spontaneous hypothermia with mortality were performed. In addition, full assessment of the association of hypothermia with mortality was conducted using multivariable logistic regressions reporting the odds ratios (OR) with the 95% confidence intervals (CI) and P-values.

Results

There were 11,033 patients identified from the PTOS with severe TBI. There were 4839 deaths (43.9%). The proportion of deaths in hypothermic patients was higher than the proportion of deaths in normothermic patients (53.9% vs. 37.4% respectively; P value < 0.001). In a multivariable logistic regression model adjusted for demographics, injury characteristics, and information at admission to the trauma centre, the odds of death among patients with hypothermia were 1.70 times the odds of death among patients with normothermia (OR 1.70, 95% CI 1.50–1.93), indicating that the probability of death was significantly higher when patients arrived hypothermic at the trauma centre.

Conclusion

The presence of spontaneous hypothermia at hospital admission is associated with a significant increase in the risk of mortality in patients with severe TBI. The benefit of maintaining normothermia in severe TBI patients, the impact of prolonged re-warming in patients with established hypothermia and the introduction of prophylactic measures to complications of hypothermia are key points that require further investigation.     

创伤性脑损伤后肺损伤的发病机制研究进展

背景 创伤性脑损伤(traumatic brain injury,TBI)患者可能发生肺损伤,严重时甚至发生肺功能障碍.脑与肺通过复杂途径相互联系.发生肺功能障碍的TBI患者病死率增加、 加强治疗病房住院时间延长且神经预后较差.目的 综述TBI后肺损伤的研究进展.内容 讨论TBI后肺损伤的发生特点并综述其潜在机制.趋向 根据具体情况评估TBI患者发生肺损伤的潜在风险,并在其临床症状出现前进行相应干预有助于降低发生TBI后肺损伤的风险.     

Extracellular glycerol in patients with severe traumatic brain injury

Objective： To study the factors affecting extracellular glycerol （Gly） in patients with severe traumatic brain injury （STBI）.
Methods： Perilesional extracellular Gly and cerebral blood flow （CBF） in 53 patients with STBI were consecutively monitored. Simultaneously, the intracranial pressure （ICP） and cerebral perfusion pressure （CCP） were monitored. The hourly minimum of CCP and CBF and the hourly maximum of ICP levels were matched with the hourly Gly. Gly values were divided into several groups according to regional ICP （〈 15 nun Hg or 〉 15 nun Hg）, CCP （〈70 nun Hg or 〉70 nun Hg）, CBF （〈50 AU or 50-150 AU） and the outcomes （death or persistent vegetative state group, severe or moderate disability group, and good recovery group）.
Results： In comparison with the severe or moderate disability group, the Gly concentration of the death or persistent vegetative state group increased significantly, but CBF and CCP decreased significantly. In comparison with the good recovery group, the Gly concentration of the severe or moderate disability group increased significantly, but CBF and CCP decreased significantly. The Gly concen- trations in patients with ICP〉15 mm Hg, CCP〈70 mm Hg and CBF〈50 AU were respectively higher than those of patients with ICP 〈15 mm Hg, CCP〉70 mm Hg and 50AU 〈CBF〈150AU. In patients with diffuse axial injury, the mean Gly concentration was （201.17±55.00） μmol/L, which was significantly higher than that of the patients with epidural hematoma （n=7, 73.26±8.37, P〈O.05） or subdural hematoma （n=9, 114.67 ±62.88, P〈O.05）, but it did not increase signifi- cantly when compared with those in patients with contusion （n=24, 167.48±52.63）.
Conclusion： Gly can be taken as a marker for degrada- tion of membrane phospholipids and ischemia, which reflects the severity of primary or secondary insult.     

Effect of hypothermia on apoptosis in traumatic brain injury and hemorrhagic shock model

IntroductionThe neuroprotective mechanisms of therapeutic hypothermia against trauma-related injury have not been fully understood yet. In this study, we aimed to investigate the effects of therapeutic hypothermia on biochemical and histopathological markers of apoptosis using Traumatic brain injury (TBI) and hemorrhagic shock (HS) model.MethodsA total of 50 male albino-wistar rats were divided into five groups: Group isolated TBI, Group NT (HT + HS + normothermia), Group MH (HT + HS + mild hypothermia), Group MoH (HT + HS + moderate hypothermia) and Group C (control). Neurological deficit scores were assessed at baseline and at 24 h. The rats were, then, sacrificed to collect serum and brain tissue samples. Levels of Caspase-3,6,8, proteoglycan-4 (PG-4), malondialdehyde (MDA), and nitric oxide (NO) were measured in serum and brain tissue samples. Histopathological examination was performed in brain tissue.ResultsThere were significant differences in the serum levels of Caspase-3 between Group NT and Group C (p = 0.018). The serum levels of Caspase-6 in Group NT (0.70 ± 0.58) were lower than Group MH (1.39 ± 0.28), although the difference was not statistically significant (p = 0.068). There were significant differences in the brain tissue samples for Caspase-3 levels between Group NT and Group C (p = 0.049). A significant difference in the Caspase-8 brain tissue levels was also observed between Group NT and Group C (p = 0.022). Group NT had significantly higher scores of all the pathological variables (for edema p < 0.017; for gliosis p < 0.001; for congestion p < 0.003, for hemorrhage p < 0.011) than Group C.ConclusionOur study results suggest that hypothermia may exert its neuroprotective effects by reducing markers of apoptotic pathway, particularly Caspase-3 on TBI and HS.     

Prospective evaluation of oro-pharyngeal dysphagia after severe traumatic brain injury

Primary objective: To evaluate clinical, videofluoroscopic findings and clinical evolution of neurogenic dysphagia and to establish the prognostic factors.

Research design: Prospective cohort study.

Methods and procedures: Forty-eight patients with severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) and clinically-suspected oro-pharyngeal dysphagia were studied. Clinical evaluation of oro-pharyngeal dysphagia and videofluoroscopic examination were performed. Clinical evolution was based on feeding mode at discharge, the presence of respiratory complications and body mass index (BMI) at admission and at discharge.

Main outcomes and results: Sixty-five per cent of patients had impaired gag reflex and 44% cough during oral feeding. Videofluoroscopy revealed some type of disorder in 90% of cases: 65% in the oral phase and 73% in the pharyngeal phase (aspiration in 62.5%, being silent in 41%). At discharge, 45% were on normal diet, 27% on a modified oral diet, 14% combined oral intake and gastrostomy feeding and 14% were fed exclusively by gastrostomy. Feeding mode at discharge substantially correlated with RLCF score at admission (p=0.04) and with RLCF (p=0.009) and DRS (p=0.02) scores at discharge.

Conclusions: Aspiration is very frequent in patients with severe TBI, being silent in almost half. Cognitive function evaluated with the RLCF is the best prognostic factor. At discharge, 72% of the patients were on oral food intake despite having severe TBI.     

颅脑创伤后大鼠脑组织中Apelin表达变化的研究

目的研究颅脑创伤后大鼠脑组织中Apelin表达的变化规律。方法 96只雄性SD大鼠随机分为假手术组(A组)、轻型颅脑创伤组(B组)和重型颅脑创伤组(C组),每组又分6小时、24小时、72小时、168小时4亚组,RT-PCR法观测Apelin的基因表达,免疫组化法观测Apelin的表达。结果 B组和C组的Apelin表达高于A组,并在24小时达到高峰,而且在C组的升高程度大于B组。结论颅脑损伤后脑组织中Apelin的表达增加,并且与损伤严重程度相关。     

颅脑损伤早期血清炎性细胞因子的变化与预后关系分析

目的：探讨颅脑损伤患者早期血清中肿瘤坏死因子α（TNF-α）、白细胞介素6（IL-6）和白细胞介素8（IL-8）变化与预后之间的关系及其临床意义。方法选取2012年3月至2014年3月期间,在本院住院的急性颅脑损伤患者80例作为观察组,并按照格拉斯哥昏迷评分标准（GCS）分为两组,其中颅脑损伤中重型（3~12分）40例,轻型（13-15分）40例;同时选择本院同期健康体检志愿者共80例为正常对照组;分别采用放射免疫法及酶联免疫吸附试验（ELISA）测定各组血清中TNF-α、IL-6和IL-8的含量水平,并且分析血清中TNF-α、IL-6和IL-8的含量与颅脑损伤程度的关系。结果住院后第1天颅脑损伤组血清中TNF-α、IL-6和IL-8水平均显著高于正常对照组（P＜0.05）;且发现所有时间点中重度组的炎症因子TNF-α、IL-6和IL-8水平均显著性高于轻度组（P＜0.05）;所有患者入院1个月后,按照格拉斯哥评分（GOS）评定患者,预后良好30例,预后不良60例,对比两组炎症因子水平,发现预后不两组患者TNF-α、IL-6和IL-8水平均显著高于预后良好组（P＜0.05）。结论血清中TNF-α、IL-6和IL-8水平可作为判断颅脑损伤严重程度的指标,其联合检测敏感性和特异性均较高,对颅脑损伤的早期诊断及预后判断意义重大。     

Gender differences in outcome in patients with hypotension and severe traumatic brain injury

BACKGROUND: Animal studies have identified hormonal influences on responses to injury and recovery, creating a potential gender effect on outcome. Progesterone and oestrogen are thought to afford protection in the immediate post-injury period, suggesting females have an advantage, although there has been limited evidence of this in human outcome studies. METHODS: This study examined the influence of gender on outcome in 229 adults (151 males), aged >17 years, with severe blunt head trauma, initial GCS <9 and hypotension, recruited into a randomised controlled trial of pre-hospital hypertonic saline resuscitation versus conventional fluid management. Outcome was measured by survival and Glasgow Outcome Scale-Extended version (GOS-E) scores at 6 months post-injury. RESULTS: Females recruited into the study had a higher mean age. Females were more likely to be injured as passengers and pedestrians and males as drivers or motorcyclists. There were no gender differences in GCS or injury severity scores, ICP, cerebral perfusion pressure, gas exchange (PaO2/FiO2 ratio), or duration of mechanical ventilation. After controlling for GCS, age and cause of injury, females had a lower rate of survival. They also showed a lower rate of good outcome (GOS-E score >4) at 6 months, but this appeared to reflect the lower rate of initial survival. Those females surviving had similar outcomes to males. CONCLUSIONS: The study provides no evidence that females fare better than males following severe TBI, suggesting rather that females may fare worse.     

颅脑外伤后进展性脑损害的研究进展

颅脑外伤后进展性脑损害,包括脑出血、脑缺血、脑水肿,都是影响颅脑外伤预后的重要因素.本文复习文献,对颅脑外伤后进展性脑损害的发病率、发生机制、早期诊断方法、治疗和预后等相关问题的研究进展进行了综述.     

Dysautonomia and heart rate variability following severe traumatic brain injury

Primary objective: To investigate disconnection theories postulated as the cause of dysautonomia following severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) through analysis of heart rate variability (HRV).

Methods and procedures: Data were collected on age-matched subjects with and without dysautonomia (eight subjects in each group) and 16 non-injured controls. Data included injury details, continuous electrocardiograph recordings and rehabilitation outcome.

Main outcomes and results: The TBI group revealed significant differences in HRV parameters both compared to controls and between dysautonomic and non-dysautonomic subjects. Additionally, HRV parameters for dysautonomic subjects showed evidence of an uncoupling of the normal relationship between heart rate and sympathetic/parasympathetic balance. HRV changes persisted for the dysautonomia group for a mean of 14 months post-injury.

Conclusions: Dysautonomic subjects revealed prolonged uncoupling of heart rate and HRV parameters compared to non-dysautonomic subjects and controls. These findings represent direct pathophysiological evidence supporting the disconnection theory postulated to produce dysautonomia following TBI.     

Effect of mild hypothermia on glucose metabolism and glycerol of brain tissue in patients with severe traumatic brain injury

Objective： To study the effect of mild hypothermia on glucose metabolism and glycerol of brain tissue in patients with severe traumatic brain injury （STBI） using clinical microdialysis. Methods：Thirty-one patients with STBI （ GCS ≤ 8 ） were randomly divided into hypothermic group （Group A ） and control group（ Group B）. Microdialysis catheters were inserted into the cerebral cortex of perilesional and normal brain tissue. All samples were analyzed using CMA mlcrodialysis analyzer. Results. In comparison with the control group, lactate/glucose ratio （ L/G ）, lactate/pyruvate ratio （ L/P ） and glycerol（Gly） in perilensional tissue were significantly decreased; L/P in normal brain tissue was significantly decreased. In control group, L/G, L/P and Gly in perilensional tissue were higher than that in normal brain tissue. In the hypothermic group, L/P in perileusional tissue was higher than that in relative normal brain. Conclusions： Mild hypothermia protects brain tissues by decreasing L/G, L/P and Gly in perilensional tissue and L/P in ＂ normal brain＂ tissues. The energy crisis and membrane phospholipid degradation in perilensional tissue are easier to happen after traumatic brain injury, and mild hypothermia protects brain better in perilensional tissue than in normal brain tissue.     

The impact of intracranial pressure monitoring on mortality after severe traumatic brain injury

Background

The effect of intracranial pressure (ICP) monitoring on mortality after severe traumatic brain injury (sTBI) remains unclear. We hypothesized that ICP monitoring would not be associated with improved survival in patients with sTBI.

Methods

A retrospective analysis was performed on sTBI patients, defined as admission Glasgow Coma Scale score of 8 or less with intracranial hemorrhage. Patients who underwent ICP monitoring were compared with patients who did not. The primary outcome measure was inhospital mortality.

Results

Of 123 sTBI patients meeting inclusion criteria, 40 (32.5%) underwent ICP monitoring. On bivariate and multivariate regression analyses, ICP monitoring was associated with decreased mortality (odds ratio = .32, 95% confidence interval = .10 to .99, P = .049). This finding persisted on propensity-adjusted analysis.

Conclusions

ICP monitoring is associated with improved survival in adult patients with sTBI. In addition, significant variability exists in the use of ICP monitoring among patients with sTBI.     

Current understanding of neuroinflammation after traumatic brain injury and cell-based therapeutic opportunities

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) remains a major cause of death and disability worldwide. Increasing evidence indicates that TBI is an important risk factor for neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and chronic traumatic encephalopathy. Despite improved supportive and rehabilitative care of TBI patients, unfortunately, all late phase clinical trials in TBI have yet to yield a safe and effective neuroprotective treatment. The disappointing clinical trials may be attributed to variability in treatment approaches and heterogeneity of the population of TBI patients as well as a race against time to prevent or reduce inexorable cell death. TBI is not just an acute event but a chronic disease. Among many mechanisms involved in secondary injury after TBI, emerging preclinical studies indicate that posttraumatic prolonged and progressive neuroinflammation is associated with neurodegeneration which may be treatable long after the initiating brain injury. This review provides an overview of recent understanding of neuroinflammation in TBI and preclinical cell-based therapies that target neuroinflammation and promote functional recovery after TBI.     

标准大骨瓣减压术联合选择性脑局部亚低温对重型颅脑损伤的疗效分析

目的探讨标准大骨瓣减压术联合选择性脑局部亚低温对重型颅脑损伤的治疗效果。方法回顾性分析2000年1月至2007年12月91例在本院神经外科住院的重型颅脑损伤的患者,均行标准大骨瓣减压术,根据术后有无行选择性脑局部亚低温治疗分为A、B两组,比较术后颅内压的变化及治疗预后。结果两组术后颅内压均在同一水平,在行亚低温治疗后,A组在术后24小时、48小时、72小时颅内压明显较治疗前降低,B组在术后48小时、72小时颅内压明显较治疗前降低,差异有统计学意义（P〈0．05）;A组在术后24小时、72小时的颅内压明显低于B组,差异有统计学意义（P〈O．05）。A组治疗有效率为42．9％,明显高于对照组21．4％,差异有统计学意义（P〈O．05）。结论标准大骨瓣减压术是救治重型颅脑损伤的患者有效的方式,术后给予脑局部亚低温能显著降低颅内压,改善患者预后。     

亚低温治疗重型颅脑损伤临床分析

目的研究亚低温对重型颅脑损伤患者颅内压（ICP）及并发症的影响。方法重型颅脑损伤患者68例,随机分为亚低温组（n=38）及常温常规治疗组（n=30）。亚低温组接受32℃～35℃低温治疗,常温常规治疗组除亚低温治疗外,其余治疗同亚低温组。比较两组的ICP、预后和并发症的差异。结果亚低温治疗组伤后ICP显著低于常温常规治疗组（P（0.01）。预后显著好于常温常规治疗组（P〈0.05）。应激性溃疡、肝肾功能异常和外伤性癫痫的发生率显著低于常温常规治疗组（P〈0.01）。结论亚低温对重型颅脑损伤患者ICP升高有明显的治疗作用,可以改善重型颅脑损伤患者的预后,减少全身并发症。     

Therapeutic effect of mild hypothermia on severe traumatic head injury

ldhypothermia (33 35℃ )isbeneficialforbrainprotectionandthusreducesthemortalityofthepatientswithseveretraumaticbraininjury (TBI) ,whichhasbeen provedbyclinicalandexperimentalevidences .1,2 However ,hypothermialeadstosuchcomplicationsasseveresecondaryinfectionsandshockduringrewarming .1InordertofurtherevaluatetheeffectofhypothermiaonsevereTBI ,wetreatedsuch patientswithmildhypothermiaandnormothermia ,respectively ,ananalyzedtheirclinicaleffectsprospectively .METHODSClinicaldataBetween 199…     

Long-term outcome in severe traumatic brain injury is significantly influenced by brainstem involvement

Primary objective: To study the 1-year-outcome of 32 survivors of severe traumatic brain injury with respect to the impact of brainstem injury.

Research design: Retrospective clinical study performed in a university hospital.

Methods and procedures: Thirty-two 1-year-survivors (15 with brainstem injury present) of severe traumatic brain injury were investigated for neurological function, activities of daily living, need for care and professional ability.

Main outcomes and results: Visual impairment, spasticity, co-ordination deficits and organic psychosis were more frequent in the group harbouring brainstem lesions. Professional ability was worse among these patients.

Conclusion: Brainstem involvement in survivors of severe traumatic brain injury conveys a negative impact on long-term outcome.     

中重度颅脑损伤后血清三碘甲腺原氨酸水平变化与预后的关系

目的研究中重度颅脑损伤后血清三碘甲腺原氨酸水平变化与预后的关系。方法应用酶联免疫定量分析法多次检测164例中重度颅脑损伤患者游离三碘甲腺原氨酸(FT_3)、三碘甲腺原氨酸(T_3)水平的动态变化,同时记录GCS评分,观察分析血清FT_3及T_3水平变化与GCS变化的关系。结果不同程度的中重度颅脑损伤患者,其中恢复较好的患者在第7天和第14天检测的血清T_3和FT_3水平显著高于恢复较差的患者血清T_3和FT_3水平。结论中重度颅脑损伤T_3和FT_3的变化与预后密切相关,提高T_3和FT_3水平有望成为治疗中重度颅脑损伤的重要切入点。     

Psychiatric comorbidity following traumatic brain injury

Primary objective: Survivors of traumatic brain injury (TBI) are at increased risk for development of severe, long-term psychiatric disorders. However, the aetiology of these disorders remains unclear. This article systematically reviews the most current prevalence rates and evidence for causality, in terms of established criteria.

Main outcome and results: Psychiatric syndromes are consistently present at an elevated rate following TBI. Survivors of TBI are particularly susceptible to major depression, generalized anxiety disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder. Evidence for a biological gradient is generally lacking, although this criterion may not be appropriate in the case of TBI. The temporal pattern of onset is variable and reliable critical periods for the post-injury development of a psychiatric disorder remain to be identified; however, individuals appear to remain at risk for years following injury.

Conclusions: Non-organic factors, including pre-morbid personality traits and post-injury psychological reactions to disability and trauma, are implicated in the generation and maintenance of post-TBI psychiatric disorder. There remains insufficient evidence to conclude what role the neuropathological consequences of TBI play in the development of post-TBI psychiatric disorder.     

重型颅脑损伤后高血糖的临床意义分析

目的探讨重型颅脑损伤（SBI）后高血糖的临床意义。方法回顾性收集了128例重型闭合性颅脑损伤（GCS≤8分）患者的临床资料,应用统计学方法分析不同颅脑损伤损伤类型、入院时GCS水平、瞳孔光反应、近期预后与术后24小时内血糖水平的关系。颅脑损伤类型分为硬膜外血肿、硬膜下血肿、脑内血肿/脑挫裂伤3组;入院时GCS水平分成3-4分组、5-6分组、7-8分组;瞳孔对光反应情况分成双侧瞳孔光反应存在、单侧瞳孔光反应消失、双侧瞳孔光反应消失3组。近期预后分为预后良好和预后不良2组。结果重型颅脑损伤组血糖水平明显高于中型颅脑损伤组（P〈0.05）,3-4分组血糖水平（16.11±2.85）mmol/L明显高于7-8分组（12.33±2.23）mmol/L和5-6分组（14.11±2.85）mmol/L,而5-6分组血糖水平也明显高于7-8分组,各组间差异均有统计学意义（P〈0.05）;双侧瞳孔光反应消失组术后24小时内血糖水平（19.29±3.87）mmol/L,明显高于双侧瞳孔光反应存在组（15.69±2.83）mmol/L和单侧瞳孔光反应消失组（17.84±3.89）mmol/L,单侧瞳孔光反应消失组血糖水平明显高于双侧瞳孔光反应存在组,各组间差异均有统计学意义（P〈0.05）;预后不良组术后24小时内血糖水平明显高于预后良好组（P〈0.05）。血糖16.7mmol/L组的预后明显差于≤16.7mmol/L组（P〈0.05）。结论重型颅脑损伤后血糖水平明显增高。颅脑损伤伤情越重,血糖水平越高。高血糖是严重影响重型颅脑损伤预后的重要指标。