带线锚钉在颈椎单开门椎管扩大椎板成形术中的应用

目的 评价带线锚钉在颈椎单开门椎管扩大椎板成形术中应用的近期临床疗效.方法 在颈椎单开门椎管扩大椎板成形术中采用带线锚钉锚定侧块并应用缝线悬吊“门轴”侧.结果 本组获随访3～17个月,术后3个月JOA评分改善率、颈椎曲度、末次随访时椎板开门角度均较满意.结论 带线锚钉应用于颈椎单开门椎管扩大椎板成形术中,操作安全,近期疗效满意.     

微型钛板改良单开门颈椎管扩大成形术治疗脊髓型颈椎病的临床效果

【摘要】〓目的〓评价微型钛板改良单开门颈椎管扩大椎板成形术治疗脊髓型颈椎病的临床效果。方法〓2008年1月~2012年2月,观察46例多节段脊髓型颈椎病(MCSM)行微型钛板改良单开门颈椎管扩大椎板成形术的脊髓型颈椎病患者,对比术前及术后JOA评分,在CT上测量C5节段椎管术前、术后6个月的矢状径,计算椎管扩大率[(术后椎管矢状径-术前椎管矢状径)/(术前椎管矢状径)×100%],观察单开门门轴侧骨融合情况。结果〓平均随访18个月(6~24个月)。术前平均JOA评分8.2分,术后平均JOA评分14.8分。C5节段椎管矢状径术前为8.6±1.1 mm,术后6个月为16.1±0.9 mm,椎管扩大率为(74.3±14.4)%。术后6个月,可以观察到单开门门轴侧骨融合,无螺钉松动及再“关门”现象。结论〓微型钛板改良单开门椎管成形术治疗脊髓型颈椎病临床效果满意,防止再关门。     

Centerpiece钛板在颈椎单开门椎管扩大成形术中的应用

目的探讨颈椎单开门椎管扩大成形术结合Centerpiece钛板固定术后的临床疗效。方法回顾分析2009年2月~2012年12月无锡市中医医院脊柱科应用颈椎单开门治疗的颈椎椎管狭窄症患者资料30例,其中Centerpiece钛板固定16例(钛板组),传统丝线悬吊14例(悬吊组)。观察2组患者术后神经功能改善情况;比较2组患者术前、术后2个月及末次随访时颈椎活动度、颈椎椎管矢状径、颈椎椎管横截面积。比较术后2个月及末次随访时开门角度的变化。结果经日本骨科学会(Japanese Orthopaedic Association,JOA)评分,2组术后2个月及末次随访与术前比较,差异均有统计学意义(P<0.01)。2组患者颈椎活动度术前与术后2个月及末次随访相比,差异均无统计学意义。椎管矢状径、开门角度及椎管横截面积在末次随访与术后2个月比较中,钛板组差异无统计学意义;悬吊组差异有统计学意义(P<0.01)。结论颈椎后路单开门结合Centerpiece钛板固定可良好保持开门椎板的稳定状态,维持开门角度以扩大椎管的容积,而传统丝线悬吊组椎板的稳定性在随访期内有所下降。     

微形钛板固定颈椎椎板成形术的临床应用

[目的]介绍一种颈椎后路开门、微形钛板固定的椎板成形术式，评价其在颈椎椎管狭窄手术中的应用效果。[方法]选择27例颈椎管狭窄症患者实施颈椎后路单侧或双侧开门减压、微形钛板固定开门椎板的新术式，术后平均随访27个月。[结果]27例患者切口均达到一期愈合，术后随访半年以上症状改善优良率88％，1例症状改善不明显的患者，二期实施前路减压固定融合术后症状缓解，无1例出现继发性椎管狭窄。[结论]应用微形钛板固定的颈椎椎板成形术具有避免开门椎板再关闭，保持椎管扩大效果，同时对脊柱活动度影响小的优点，且操作简单，并发症少，适合临床运用。     

微型钛板在颈椎单开门椎管扩大椎板成形术中的应用

【摘要】 目的：评价微型钛板内固定在颈椎单开门椎管扩大椎板成形术中的临床应用价值及其近期随访结果。方法：2008年1月~2010年3月在我院行颈椎单开门椎管扩大椎板成形术并获得完整随访资料的脊髓型颈椎病患者45例,手术开门减压节段均为C3~C7,其中20例患者使用微型钛板行“开门”侧固定（A组）,另25例采用传统缝线悬吊“门轴”（B组）。记录手术时间、术中出血量、术后轴性症状发生率及JOA（17分法）评分,在X线侧位片上测量C2与C7椎体后壁切线夹角α（颈椎曲度）,在末次随访时颈椎CT片上测量椎板开门角度     

两种固定方法在颈椎单开门椎管扩大椎板成形术中的比较研究

目的通过对门轴侧锚定法与开门侧支撑法两组病例的比较研究,评价纳米仿生骨"Y"形板在颈椎后路单开门椎管扩大椎板成形术中的应用价值。方法 2013年1月—2015年6月,本院收治椎管狭窄症(29例)和后纵韧带骨化症(OPLL,13例)颈椎后路手术适应证患者42例,均经后路行单开门椎管扩大椎板成形术,按手术时间顺序交替采用纳米仿生骨"Y"形板固定开门侧(A组,21例)及锚定法改良单开门(B组,21例)。记录手术时间、术中出血量及并发症发生情况。以颈椎功能障碍指数(NDI)及疼痛视觉模拟量表(VAS)评分评价患者手术前后生活质量;在术后即刻及末次随访的CT片上测量椎板掀开角度;在术前及末次随访CT片上测量C5节段椎管矢状径,椎管扩大率=(术后椎管矢状径-术前椎管矢状径)/术前椎管矢状径×100%。结果全部病例均获随访,随访时间12~24个月,平均16.5个月。2组患者手术时间、术中出血量及并发症发生情况差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。2组患者术前NDI、VAS评分、椎板掀开角度及C5节段椎管矢状径差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。A组末次随访时NDI、VAS评分及C5节段椎管矢状径与术前相比,差异有统计学意义(P0.05);椎管扩大率51.1%;末次随访时椎板掀开角度与术后即刻相比,差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。B组末次随访时NDI、VAS评分及C5节段椎管矢状径与术前相比,差异有统计学意义(P0.05);椎管扩大率48.4%;末次随访时椎板掀开角度与术后即刻相比,差异有统计学意义(P0.05)。末次随访时,2组间NDI、VAS评分及C5节段椎管矢状径差异无统计学意义(P0.05);椎板掀开角度差异有统计学意义(P0.05)。结论两种固定方式在颈椎后路单开门椎管扩大椎板成形术中均获满意的近期临床疗效。纳米仿生骨"Y"形板的应用能够更好地防止"再关门"现象发生,是一种安全、简便的方案,可作为微型钛板固定的补充。     

颈后路椎管扩大减压微型钛板固定椎板成形术与传统颈椎后路单开门椎管扩大减压术治疗颈椎病的比较研究

[目的]比较观察研究颈后路椎管扩大减压微型钛板固定椎板成形术与传统颈椎后路单开门椎管扩大减压术治疗颈椎病的临床疗效。[方法]回顾分析32例脊髓型颈椎病患者的临床资料,按手术方式随机分为2组,其中观察组为微型钛板组16例,对照组为传统单开门组16例,对比分析两组患者手术情况、术后症状改善情况JOA评分,末次随访术后椎板开门角度,术后测量颈椎曲度(颈椎侧位X线片上C2与C7椎体后壁切线之间夹角)的改变,以及轴性症状发生率,观察手术时间、术中出血量对比情况。[结果]经术后6个月²年的随访,微型钛板固定组术后6个月JOA评分改善率为60.5%±17.0%,传统单开门组为58.2%±9.5%,两组比较差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。微型钛板固定组末次随访时椎板开门角度为(42.3±3.5)°,传统单开门组为(39.5±4.1)°,两组比较差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。微型钛板固定组术后6个月颈椎曲度为(18.5±4.8)°,与术前(18.2±4.8)°比较差异无统计学意义(P>0.05);传统单开门组术后6个月颈椎曲度为(16.9±5.6)°,与术前(19.5±6.2)°比较差异有统计学意义(P<0.05);微型钛板固定组术后6个月轴性症状发生率为4/16,明显低于传统单开门组的9/16,两组比较差异有统计学意义(P<0.05);两组患者无1例出现C5神经根麻痹。[结论]颈后路椎管扩大减压微型钛板固定椎板成形术和传统颈椎后路单开门椎管扩大减压术均是治疗脊髓型颈椎病的有效方法,但颈后路椎管扩大减压微型钛板固定椎板成形术更有效防止单开门椎管扩大椎板成形术后再关门,减少术后轴性症状的发生率和颈椎曲度的丢失,是治疗颈椎病的一种理想手术方式。     

椎管径线测量在颈椎管狭窄手术中的应用

目的:探讨颈椎管狭窄术前CT下椎管径线的测量和临床应用.方法:96例颈椎管狭窄患者均为男性,年龄41～73岁,平均53岁.术前对其CT片上测量到的各椎管径线换算成实际值,术中以此为依据做椎板开槽,完成椎管扩大成形.结果:术后CT复查椎管矢状径明显改善,椎板开门准确无误,既无偏内又无偏外,椎管减压满意.结论:颈后路双开门椎管扩大成形术术前精确的测量椎管径线,并以此指导椎板开槽是保证手术成功的关键环节.     

单开门椎板成形微钛板固定治疗颈椎后纵韧带骨化症

目的：探讨单开门椎板成形微钛板固定治疗颈椎后纵韧带骨化症的临床疗效。方法回顾性分析2012-06-2013-06于我院接受手术治疗的颈椎后纵韧带骨化症患者48例,随机分为两组,两组分别记录手术时间、出血量,术后3个月、6个月、12个月,门诊复查颈椎X线、CT、MRI,测量椎管前后径指数,开门角度,评估椎管扩大率,采用JOA评分观察术后神经功能的恢复情况。结果钛板组：术前平均JOA评分为（8.4±1.7）,末次随访时为（13.6±2.2）,改善率为60.5%。传统组：术前平均JOA评分为（8.5±1.5）,末次随访时为（11.6±2.0）,改善率为50.5%。结论颈椎单开门椎板成形术中应用颈椎微钛板固定可有效维持术后开门角度,预防“再关门”出现,是治疗颈椎后纵韧带骨化症的有效方法。     

颈椎单开门椎管扩大成形术微型钛板内固定治疗颈椎管狭窄症

目的探讨颈椎单开门椎管扩大成形术微型钛板内固定治疗颈椎管狭窄症的临床效果。方法将48例颈椎管狭窄症患者按治疗方法分为观察组(24例,采用Centerpiece钛板固定椎板)和对照组(24例,采用丝线悬吊固定椎板)。记录颈椎管矢状径和颈椎管横截面积,采用JOA评分评价疗效。结果两组患者均获得6个月随访。两组颈椎管矢状径、颈椎管横截面积、JOA评分:术后2、6个月与术前比较差异均有统计学意义(P 0. 05),术后6个月与术后2个月比较差异均有统计学意义(P 0. 05)。两组改善率比较差异有统计学意义(P 0. 05)。两组并发症比较差异无统计学意义(P 0. 05)。结论颈椎单开门椎管扩大成形术微型钛板内固定治疗颈椎管狭窄症疗效满意,对维持椎管扩大的效果优于丝线悬吊法。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.