Gender Differences and Mental Health: An Exploratory Study of Knowledge and Attitudes to Mental Health Among Scottish Teenagers

Method:  A cross-sectional survey of 496 teenagers was conducted in order to explore their knowledge and attitude towards mental health and people with mental health problems.
Results:  Boys reported lower levels of knowledge and different sources of stress than girls. Negative attitudes were more common among boys than girls. Boys were less likely to think that an understanding of mental health was important, less likely to want to know more about mental health issues and twice as likely to think that they had already been given enough education.
Conclusion:  Gender specific educational interventions may be more appropriate and effective than whole school approaches.     

Children with psychiatric disorders who are frequent attenders to primary care

Child psychiatric disorder has been found to be linked to enhanced primary care attendance. We studied the somatic and psychological associations of psychiatric disorder amongst frequent (four or more consultations a year) primary care attending school children. We compared 32 children aged 7–12 years with a psychiatric disorder with 77 non-disordered (also frequently attending) children. Psychiatric disorder was not associated with type of presenting complaint at the surgery nor with chronic physical illness. However disordered children were more likely to be described by their mothers as handicapped by existing physical problems, in poor health, with low energy levels and likely to experience physical symptoms under stress. Problems in social relationships and educational difficulties were reported in more disordered children; more of them came from broken homes and had mothers who reported other psycho-social and health stresses and showed characteristic health beliefs. The findings indicate that knowledge about the child's general physical well-being and relationships and about maternal mental health may assist in the primary care identification and management of psychiatric disorders of frequently attending school children. Accepted: 17 September 1998     

Family relation and social competence of children unwanted at birth. A follow-up study at the age of 16

The children of mothers who said during the pregnancy that the child was not wanted were followed up to age of 16. The material is based on a 14 year follow-up of 96.5% of all the births in Northern Finland in 1966. Controls from the 1966 data are assigned to the unwanted children who are matched with them in sex, age and parity. The number of children and marital and social status of the mother were matched, also taking into account the change in these variables between 1966 and 1980. The differences between the unwanted and control children were not dramatic, but there was a consistent difference between the unwanted girls and their controls, especially in their relations with their fathers, the unwanted girls perceiving their fathers to have been more hostile, more inconsistent in educational practice and less positive. The unwanted girls were rated lower by their teachers in personal behaviour and their relationships with schoolmates. They were more often reluctant to go to school, wanting to leave at the earliest possible age. No such differences were noted between the unwanted and control boys.     

Predicting school dropout and adolescent sexual behavior in offspring of depressed and nondepressed mothers

OBJECTIVE: To examine predictors of school dropout and adolescent sexual behavior in offspring of depressed and nondepressed mothers. Possible moderators of the relation between maternal depression and these outcomes also were explored. METHOD: Participants were 240 mothers and adolescents assessed annually from 6th through 12th grade. Interviews and questionnaires measured the chronicity and severity of the mother's depressive episodes, the mother's educational attainment, socioeconomic status, the presence of a father, the adolescent's IQ, externalizing behaviors, and substance use disorders. RESULTS: Substance use disorders before ninth grade significantly predicted higher rates of both school dropout and adolescent sexual behavior. Lower levels of mother's educational attainment and higher rates of adolescent's externalizing behaviors in grades 6 through 8 predicted higher school dropout. Higher IQ was associated with a lower likelihood of dropping out among offspring of never or moderately depressed mothers, but not for offspring of chronic/severely depressed mothers. Among offspring of never or moderately depressed mothers, the presence of a male head of household was associated with lower rates of adolescent sexual behavior, but not among offspring of chronically/severely depressed mothers. CONCLUSIONS: These findings have implications for the development of programs aimed at preventing behavior problems in high-risk adolescents.     

Exposure to maternal depression and marital conflict: gender differences in children's later mental health symptoms

OBJECTIVE: To investigate effects of the timing of initial exposure to maternal depression and marital conflict on kindergarten children's mental health symptoms. METHOD: For 406 families (of 570 originally recruited), mothers reported on major depression and marital conflict on multiple occasions in the child's infancy and toddler/preschool periods. Mothers and teachers completed the MacArthur Health and Behavior Questionnaire when children were in kindergarten. RESULTS: Children evidenced co-occurring internalizing and externalizing symptoms, although the mix was more toward internalizing for girls and externalizing for boys. Symptoms were more severe among children exposed to either adversity, and these effects were additive. Boys exposed to maternal depression in infancy had a preponderance of internalizing behaviors, but if subsequently exposed to marital conflict, the mix toward externalizing behaviors increased to match levels of clinic-referred children. For girls, the preponderance of internalizing symptoms increased to match levels of clinic-referred children when initial exposure to marital conflict occurred in the toddler/preschool period. CONCLUSIONS: It is important to consider both adversities across developmental periods, to distinguish the symptom severity from directionality, and to consider child gender. Prevention and intervention efforts that consider these findings are warranted.     

A longitudinal investigation of peer sexual harassment victimization in adolescence

The current study describes longitudinal trends in sexual harassment by adolescent peers and highlights gender, pubertal status, attractiveness, and power as predictors of harassment victimization. At the end of 5th, 7th, and 9th grades, 242 adolescents completed questionnaires about sexual harassment victimization, pubertal status, and perceived power. Results indicate an increase in sexual harassment from 5th to 9th grade, with boys more likely to report harassment than girls in each grade. An analysis of harassment type indicated no gender difference in 9th grade cross-gender harassment, but boys received more same-gender harassment than girls. Pubertal status predicted concurrent sexual harassment victimization in each grade. Boys and girls with advanced pubertal status at all grades were more likely to be victims of 9th grade same-gender harassment. Adolescents with greater power at all grades were more likely to be victims of 9th grade cross-gender sexual harassment.     

Brief report: types of bullying among Italian school children.

The main aim of this research was to investigate the prevalence of bullies and victims and the types and places of bullying. A questionnaire on bullying was completed by 113 girls and 125 boys in a middle school in Rome (aged 11-14 years). Over half of all students had bullied others in the previous 3 months, and nearly half had been bullied. Boys bullied more than girls, and both boys and girls tended to be bullied by boys. Boys were more likely to suffer direct bullying such as being threatened or physically hurt. Most of the bullying took place in the classroom; boys were likely to be bullied in the toilet.     

Ethnic differences in adolescents'' identity status and associated behavior problems

The relationships between ethnicity and identity status and between identity status and behavior problems, social competence, and self-esteem were examined among 330 White, Black, Puerto Rican and Filipino students in an integrated high school. Identity status (i.e., achieved, moratorium, foreclosed, or diffuse) was defined on the basis of a 24-item self-report inventory on which students rated their explorations of options and/or commitments to choices in their occupational, political, and religious domains. Ethnic status was also assessed in an 8-item questionnaire which assessed exploration and commitment to one's ethnic role. White students in the upper grades reported significantly higher moratorium scale scores and perceived themselves as more likely to have explored and be committed to their ethnic role than minority youth. There were no significant ethnic differences in the relationships of identity status to behavior problems, social competence or self-esteem. Adolescent boys were significantly more likely to be in moratorium regarding their ethnic role than girls. Grade and sex differences in identity status were consistent with those predicted by developmental researchers. Across all ethnic groups, ratings of moratorium status were associated with significantly more behavior problems, less social competence, and lower self-esteem.     

Adolescent marijuana use: risk factors and implications

A sample of 1,270 students in Years 7, 10 and 11 attending seven State high schools in a middle class area of Sydney answered a self-report questionnaire designed to measure many aspects of their family situation, school performance, spare time activities, drinking and drug taking behaviour and sexual activity. Data on the reported prevalence of marijuana use and the variables significantly associated with marijuana use are presented and discussed. Marijuana use was reported by 4.2% of 12 year olds (Year 7), 26.5% of 15 year olds (Year 10) and 26.7% of 16 year olds (Year 11). More than half of those who had ever used marijuana had used it during the week prior to the survey and there were no significant differences in the characteristics between these recent and the remaining users. Marijuana users reported significantly poorer family relationships than non-users and were about twice as likely as non-users to come from a broken home and/or to have a mother who works full-time, which is often a consequence of marital break-up. Marijuana users also displayed poorer school performance, spent less time on homework and had more school absenteeism than non-users. Marijuana users were more than three times as likely as non-users to have had heterosexual intercourse, drunk alcohol 3 or more times in the past week and to smoke cigarettes. Also, the reported use of stimulants, hallucinogens, narcotics (heroin) and sedatives was almost entirely restricted to those who reported marijuana use. Improvements in the quality of family life may prevent the use of marijuana and other probably more harmful drugs, as well as the indulgence in other acting-out behaviours.     

Brief report: A socio-demographic profile of multiparous teenage mothers

ObjectiveDelineate a socio-demographic profile of multiparous teenage mothers at a public hospital in Brazil.MethodThis is a cross-sectional study consisting of 915 interviews with teenage girls, including 170 multiparous subjects whose babies were born alive.ResultsThe multiparous teenage mothers had the following average characteristics: 17.8 years old; first pregnancy at 16 years; beginning of sexual life at 14.2 years; dropped out of school at 13.6 years; attended school for 6 years with only 10% still attending school when they were interviewed; 87.4% had prenatal exams; monthly income was reported to be 0.3% less than the national minimum salary.ConclusionTeenage mothers are in need of better social, educational, and health care in order to have a greater chance of a positive motherhood experience, thereby creating a better, healthier environment for their children.     

Risk-taking behavior among high school students in South Korea

In a national sample of high school students, 43 per cent had drunk regularly, 32 per cent had smoked regularly, and 11 per cent had experienced sexual intercourse. Boys were more likely to have experienced these behaviors than girls. Going to school in Seoul, not having two parents in the family, and having an experience of living away from immediate family were associated with higher livelihood of experiencing these behaviors. Students who had friends with sexual experiences were much more likely to experience sex themselves than those without.     

Experiences with peers following relocation during early adolescence

Experiences with peers during a school year among 36 early adolescents who had recently moved were compared with those of 37 early adolescents who were residentially stable. As a group, the mobile adolescents had fewer contacts with friends and reported less intimacy with their best friend. Boys who had moved encountered more instances of rejection than did their nonmobile counterparts; this finding did not hold for girls.     

Effects of the school environment on early sexual risk behavior: A longitudinal analysis of students in English secondary schools

IntroductionThe theory of human functioning and school organization proposes that schools promote health by strengthening students’ educational engagement. Previous studies have relied on proxy measures of engagement and not examined sexual health. This paper addresses these gaps.MethodsLongitudinal data came from the control arm of a randomized trial involving female and male students ages 12–14 in English secondary-schools (n = 3337 students). Exposures measured at baseline included a proxy measure of school-level engagement (value-added education, VAE: the difference between observed absence and attainment rates and those predicted based on student characteristics) and direct measures of school- and student-level engagement (commitment, belonging, relationships and participation). Sexual behavior was measured at 24- and 36-months, including sexual debut and contraception use at first sex.ResultsHigher school-level VAE was associated with an increased risk of early sexual debut at 24-months. Students attending schools with higher overall levels of commitment and belonging were less likely to report sexual debut at 36 months. Students reporting stronger personal commitment to learning and teacher relationships at baseline were less likely to report sexual debut at both follow-up points. Associations involving participation and contraception use were largely nonsignificant.ConclusionsDirect measures of the school environment are more strongly associated with reduced sexual risk behavior in early adolescence than the proxy measure, VAE. Results provide some support for the theory and suggest that personal disposition towards school as well as attending a school with high levels of student commitment and belonging are important for subsequent sexual decision making.     

The relation between bullying, victimization, and adolescents' level of hopelessness

In this study, 419 Turkish middle school students (203 girls, 216 boys) were surveyed on their exposure to and engagement in bullying, and their level of hopelessness. Our findings suggest that girls were victims of indirect (e.g. gossiping) bullying more than boys. Boys reported being victims of physical (e.g. damaging property) and verbal (e.g. teasing) bullying more than girls. While the level of hopelessness among victims of physical and verbal bullying was higher than non-victims, no difference was found between the victims of indirect bullying and non-victims. Students who never talked to their teachers and parents about bullying reported higher levels of hopelessness than others. The implications of the study for intervention and prevention programs are discussed.     

Laterality effects in dichotic listening: Relations with handedness and reading ability in children

Dichotic listening performance was investigated in 234 children in grades 2, 4, and 6. Right-ear superiority increased with age in right-handers and decreased with age in left-handers, the difference between right- and left-handers reaching significance at grade 6. In general, girls showed the adult pattern of ear dominance earlier than boys. In a subsample of 90, the relation between laterality effects and reading ability was investigated. Boys who were poor readers were more likely to show crossed ear-hand dominance than were boys who were good readers, but this effect was evident in girls only at the grade 2 level.     

Gender influence in suicidal behaviour of Polish adolescents

Objective: The aim of the study was to assess the prevalence and possible suicide attempts and ideation predictors in the school population of girls and boys in the city of ód.Method: A selfadministered anonymous questionnaire was distributed to a representative (random) sample of 1663 students, aged 14–21. Boys and girls reporting no suicidal behaviour (NSB) constitute the control groups; the characteristics of these groups were compared to those of the groups with suicidal behaviour (SB), with focus on the associations between different variables and gender, separately for suicidal ideation (SI) and suicide attempts (SA).Results: About 37% of girls and 25% of boys reported suicidal ideation and about 11% and 5%, respectively, suicide attempts. Boys were more likely to make multiple suicide attempts. The relation between SB and the history of psychiatric treatment was the same for both sexes. Boys with SB were significantly more often fascinated with death, and girls were significantly more often exposed to difficult family situations.Abbreviations SI Suicidal Ideation - SA Suicidal Attempt - SB Suicidal Behaviour - NSB No Suicidal Behaviour - AACAP American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry - CDC Centres for Disease Control     

Gender and school-stage associations with health-related behaviours and health-related quality of life in Spanish children

During adolescence individuals experience a number of cognitive, physical, psychological and emotional changes which can impinge on their health and wellbeing. The aim of this study was to identify associations with five components of health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in children. Data were collected from 456 children attending one of five schools in Granada, Spain in a cross-sectional design. Females reported engaging in less physical activity than males. Females reported lower HRQoL in terms of lower physical wellbeing, family relationships and autonomy and perceived school environment in secondary school. Males only reported lower perceptions of their school environment in secondary school. Physical activity was strongly associated with HRQoL, whereas Mediterranean diet was not. Physical activity interventions should be prioritised when positive HRQoL of children is a main target. Special consideration should be given to support the positive development of females, especially during the early years of secondary school.     

Maternal psychological distress: adult sons' and daughters' mental health and educational attainment

BACKGROUND: Offspring of depressed women have high rates of depressive symptoms and other psychopathology. The authors examined the relationship of mothers' symptoms of depression and anxiety reported during their offspring's childhood and adolescence on depressive disorder and educational achievement of their adult children. METHOD: The data come from a longitudinal cohort study of first graders from Woodlawn, a neighborhood in Chicago, followed from age 6 to 32 years (N = 879). Adult children's depression and educational attainment are regressed on earlier self-reports of mothers' psychological distress. Using multiple logistic regression, the authors controlled for the relationships of poverty, mothers' education, mobility, family structure, mothers' illness, and children's first grade classroom behavior and psychological symptoms. RESULTS: Daughters of mothers with persistent maternal psychological distress had two and a half times the risk of lifetime depressive disorder, but no increased risk of high school dropout. For sons, mothers' psychological distress was not related to depression but was related to poorer educational attainment. CONCLUSIONS: Mothers' depressed feelings during the childrearing years relate to their children's depression and educational attainment as measured in adulthood. The patterns differ for sons and daughters.     

Impact of adolescent peer aggression on later educational and employment outcomes in an Australian cohort

This study used prospective birth cohort data to analyse the relationship between peer aggression at 14 years of age and educational and employment outcomes at 17 years (N = 1091) and 20 years (N = 1003). Participants from the Western Australian Pregnancy Cohort (Raine) study were divided into mutually exclusive categories of peer aggression. Involvement in peer aggression was reported by 40.2% (10.1% victims; 21.4% perpetrators; 8.7% victim–perpetrators) of participants. Participants involved in any form of peer aggression were less likely to complete secondary school. Perpetrators and victim–perpetrators of peer aggression were more likely to be in the ‘No Education, Employment or Training’ group at 20 years of age. This association was explained by non-completion of secondary school. These findings demonstrate a robust association between involvement in peer aggression and non-completion of secondary school, which in turn was associated with an increased risk of poor educational and employment outcomes in early adulthood.