Out-of-pocket health spending and the rural underinsured

Multiple studies have documented higher uninsurance rates among rural compared to urban residents, yet the relative adequacy of coverage among rural residents with private health insurance remains unclear. This study estimates underinsurance rates among privately insured rural residents (both adjacent and nonadjacent to urban areas) and the characteristics associated with rural underinsurance. We found that 6 percent of privately insured urban residents were underinsured; the rate increased to 10 percent for rural adjacent and 12 percent for rural nonadjacent residents. Multivariate analyses suggest that rural residents' underinsurance status is related to the design of the private plans through which they have coverage.     

Urban and Rural Differences in Health Insurance and Access to Care

This study considers differences in access to health care and insurance characteristics between residents of urban and rural areas. Data were collected from a telephone survey of 10,310 randomly selected households in Minnesota. Sub-samples of 400 group-insured, individually insured, intermittently insured, and uninsured people, were asked about access to health care. Those with group or individual insurance were also asked about the costs and characteristics of their insurance policies.
Rural areas had a higher proportion of uninsured and individually insured respondents than urban areas. Among those who purchased insurance through an employer, rural residents had fewer covered benefits than urban residents (5.1 vs 5.7, P < 0.01) and were more likely to have a deductible (80% versus 40%, P < 0.01). In spite of this, rural uninsured residents were more likely to have a regular source of care than urban residents (69% versus 51%, P < 0.01), and were less likely to have delayed care when they thought it was necessary (21% versus 32%, P<0.01). These differences were confirmed by multivariate analysis.
Rural residents with group insurance have higher out-of-pocket costs and fewer benefits. Uninsured rural residents may have better access to health care than their urban counterparts. Attempts to expand access to health care need to consider how the current structure of employment-based insurance creates inequities for individuals in rural areas as well as the burdens this structure may place on rural providers.     

Presence of a Community Health Center and Uninsured Emergency Department Visit Rates in Rural Counties

ABSTRACT: Context: Community health centers (CHCs) provide essential access to a primary care medical home for the uninsured, especially in rural communities with no other primary care safety net. CHCs could potentially reduce uninsured emergency department (ED) visits in rural communities. Purpose: We compared uninsured ED visit rates between rural counties in Georgia that have a CHC clinic site and counties without a CHC presence. Methods: We analyzed data from 100% of ED visits occurring in 117 rural (non‐metropolitan statistical area [MSA]) counties in Georgia from 2003 to 2005. The counties were classified as having a CHC presence if a federally funded (Section 330) CHC had a primary care delivery site in that county throughout the study period. The main outcome measure was uninsured ED visit rates among the uninsured (all‐cause ED visits and visits for ambulatory care sensitive conditions). Poisson regression models were used to examine the relationship between ED rates and the presence of a CHC. To ensure that the effects were unique to the uninsured population, we ran similar analyses on insured ED visits. Findings: Counties without a CHC primary care clinic site had 33% higher rates of uninsured all‐cause ED visits per 10,000 uninsured population compared with non‐CHC counties (rate ratio [RR] 1.33, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.11‐1.59). Higher ED visit rates remained significant (RR 1.21, 95% CI 1.02‐1.42) after adjustment for percentage of population below poverty level, percentage of black population, and number of hospitals. Uninsured ED visit rates were also higher for various categories of diagnoses, but remained statistically significant on multivariate analysis only for ambulatory care sensitive conditions (adjusted RR = 1.22, 95% CI 1.01‐1.47). No such relationship was found for ED visit rates of insured patients (RR 1.06, 95% CI 0.92‐1.22). Conclusions: The absence of a CHC is associated with a substantial excess in uninsured ED visits in rural counties, an excess not seen for ED visit rates among the insured.     

Factors Related to Receipt of Well-Child Visits in Insured Children

Our objective was to identify factors related to receipt of the recommended number of well-child visits in insured children. We hypothesized parent insurance status would be related to receipt of well-child visits, with those with uninsured parents more likely to have fewer visits than recommended. Data for the study came from the 2007 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey-Household Component. The sample included children <18 years of age with full-year insurance coverage and parents who were insured or uninsured the entire year. The outcome variable indicated whether children had received fewer than the recommended number of well-child visits in physician offices or outpatient departments. Parent, family, and child characteristics were measured. Forty-eight percent of the 4,650 children included in the study had fewer well-child visits than recommended. Children whose parents did not visit a physician during the year and children whose parents had not completed high school were more likely to miss recommended visits. Parent insurance status did not affect well-child visits. We identified child, family, and parent factors influencing well-child visits in insured children, including the parent’s own use of physician visits. Contrary to our hypothesis, well-child visits were not influenced by parent insurance status. Determining which insured children are at greater risk of missing recommended well-child visits aids policymakers in identifying those who may benefit from interventions to improve use of preventive care.     

Losing and acquiring health insurance: consequences for health care

Data from a sample of 5530 Nebraska adults under age 65 are used to analyze the independent correlates of four different insurance statuses: insured 12 consecutive months, uninsured 12 consecutive months, insured at the end of a 12 month period, but not throughout, and uninsured at the end of a 12 month period, but not throughout. The effects of insurance status on utilization of health care services when perceived to be needed are assessed, controlling for demographic explanations. The results show that uninsurance status, whether long-lasting or recent, indicates lower utilization than being insured. Policies designed to expand the number of persons with insurance, especially those linked to practices of insurers, are predicted to have little impact since the underlying causes of uninsurance are related to household income. Lower use of health care services among the uninsured is thought to present financial problems to providers, since the uninsured who do seek care are more likely to need more services (without paying). Problems of higher cost to treat these individuals also present problems for public policies that in effect create subsidies to expand the number of insured. Finally, this study indicates that incremental policy approaches may not deal adequately with the fundamental problems that result in increases in the number of uninsured Americans and caring for their health care needs.     

Uninsured rural families.

CONTEXT: Although research shows higher uninsured rates among rural versus urban individuals, prior studies are limited because they do not examine coverage across entire rural families. PURPOSE: This study uses the Medical Expenditure Panel Survey (MEPS) to compare rural and urban insurance coverage within families, to inform the design of coverage expansions that build on the current rural health insurance system. METHODS: We pooled the 2001 and 2002 MEPS Household Component survey, aggregated to the family level (excluding households with all members 65 and older). We examined (1) differences in urban, rural-adjacent, and rural nonadjacent family insurance coverage, and (2) the characteristics of rural families related to their patterns of coverage. FINDINGS: One out of 3 rural families has at least 1 uninsured member, a rate higher than for urban families-particularly in nonadjacent counties. Yet, three fourths of uninsured rural families have an insured member. For 42% of rural nonadjacent families, this is someone with public coverage (Medicaid/SCHIP or Medicare); urban families are more likely to have private health insurance or a private/public mix. CONCLUSIONS: Strategies to expand family coverage through employers may be less effective among rural nonadjacent than urban families. Instead, expansions of public coverage or tax credits enabling entire families to purchase an individual/self-employment plan would better ensure that rural nonadjacent families achieve full coverage. Subsidies or incentives would need to be generous enough to make coverage affordable for the 52% of uninsured rural nonadjacent families living below 200% of the federal poverty level.     

Primary Cesarean Section Rates in Uninsured, Medicaid and Insured Populations of Predominantly Rural Northern New England

Many studies in the United States during the past two decades have reported consistently lower cesarean section rates in women of lower socioeconomic status as defined by census tract, insurance status, or maternal level of educational attainment. This study sought to determine whether cesarean section rates in predominantly rural northern New England are lower for lower, compared with higher socioeconomic groups, as they are reported nationally and in more urban areas. Age-adjusted, primary cesarean section rates for privately insured, Medicaid and uninsured women were calculated using 1990 to 1992 uniform hospital discharge data for Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont. Age-adjusted cesarean section rates for insured women (15.71 percent) were significantly higher than those for Medicaid (14.35 percent) and uninsured (12.85 percent) women. These differences in the cesarean section rate between the insured and poorer populations in northern New England are much less than those reported elsewhere in the country.     

The impact of Medicaid on physician use by low-income children.

This study evaluated the determinants of physician use by low-income children, with an emphasis on the effect of Medicaid. Data are from the 1980 National Medical Care Utilization and Expenditure Survey. Regression analysis revealed that Medicaid children were more likely than both privately insured and uninsured children to visit an office-based physician. Also, Medicaid children with at least one visit to any setting had a higher number of visits than uninsured children. Such factors as age, health status, number of children in the family, educational status, and income also accounted for differences within the low-income population. The results suggest that access to physicians' services (including office-based physicians) can be increased by expanding Medicaid eligibility to uninsured low-income children and by improving private health insurance benefits among the underinsured.     

Children''s Health Insurance Status, Access to and Utilization of Health Services, and Unmet Health Needs in a Rural Alabama School System

PURPOSE: This study examines the relationship between children's health insurance status and utilization of health services, establishment of a medical home, and unmet health needs over a 3-year period (1996-1998) in a rural Alabama K-12 school system. METHODS: As part of a children's health insurance outreach program, questionnaires were administered to parents of 754 children regarding health and health care access. In addition, noninvasive head-to-toe physical assessments of children were conducted on-site at 4 schools. FINDINGS: A relationship between health care utilization and insurance status was observed. Results found that insured children had 1.183 (P < .0115) times the number of medical visits as uninsured children. Among uninsured children, the time since last dental visit was 1.6 (P < .001) times longer than that of insured children. Also, insured children were 5.21 times more likely than uninsured (P < .0001) to report having a medical home. No significant differences between insured and uninsured children were found regarding unmet health needs as measured by referrals made after the children's physical assessments. CONCLUSIONS: Child health coverage is an important determining factor in the ability of families to access and utilize health care services. These findings have implications for populations in similar rural communities across the nation.     

HEALTH SERVICE USE AMONG THE PREVIOUSLY UNINSURED: IS SUBSIDIZED HEALTH INSURANCE ENOUGH?

Although it has been shown that gaining Medicare coverage at age 65 years increases health service use among the uninsured, difficulty in changing habits or differences in the characteristics of previously uninsured compared with insured individuals may mean that the previously uninsured continue to use the healthcare system differently from others. This study uses Medicare claims data linked to two different surveys—the National Health Interview Survey and the Health and Retirement Study—to describe the relationship between insurance status before age 65 years and the use of Medicare‐covered services beginning at age 65 years. Although we do not find statistically significant differences in Medicare expenditures or in the number of hospitalizations by previous insurance status, we do find that individuals who were uninsured before age 65 years continue to use the healthcare system differently from those who were privately insured. Specifically, they have 16% fewer visits to office‐based physicians but make 18% and 43% more visits to hospital emergency and outpatient departments, respectively. A key question for the future may be why the previously uninsured seem to continue to use the healthcare system differently from the previously insured. This question may be important to consider as health coverage expansions are implemented. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Chiropractic Use by Urban and Rural Residents With Insurance Coverage

ABSTRACT:  Purpose: To describe the use of chiropractic care by urban and rural residents in Washington state with musculoskeletal diagnoses, all of whom have insurance coverage for this care. The analyses investigate whether restricting the analyses to insured individuals attenuates previously reported differences in the prevalence of chiropractic use between urban and rural residents as well as whether differences in provider availability or patient cost-sharing explain the difference in utilization. Methods: Claims data from 237,500 claimants in 2 large insurance companies in Washington state for calendar year 2002 were analyzed, using adjusted clinical group risk adjustment for differences in disease burden and rural urban commuting area codes for rurality definition. Findings: The proportion of claimants using chiropractors was higher in rural than urban residents (44% vs 32%, P < .001). Lack of conventional providers in rural areas did not completely explain this difference, nor did differences in patient cost-sharing or demographics. Among those who used chiropractors, those in urban areas had more chiropractic visits than users of chiropractic in rural areas. Conclusions: Among insured adults, use of chiropractic care was higher in rural than in urban areas. Reasons suggested for this difference in previous reports were not borne out in this data set.     

Correlates of health insurance coverage: evidence from the Midwest.

The Midwest is often overlooked in national studies of health insurance status. We analyzed the economic and social characteristics of uninsured and underinsured individuals and households in a Midwestern state using both bivariate and multivariate techniques. As in much of the country, economic factors, particularly income and employment, were most significant in accounting for insurance coverage. Unexpectedly, rural and urban residents were equally likely to lack insurance. Results indicate that in rural areas, underinsurance may be a greater problem than uninsurance, and that income-based health insurance is more effective than employer-provided plans in reaching all Americans.     

Access to Health Care: Urban-Rural Comparisons from a Midwestern Agricultural State

Lack of access to quality health care for a large number of Americans, particularly those living in rural areas, is a major health care problem. Differences in access between rural and urban areas are caused by obstacles to providing adequate care, such as hospital closures and physician shortages, and low income and/or employment that does not provide health insurance as an employee benefit. This study, based on a random sample of 6,000 households in Nebraska, finds that access to health care is better for residents of rural than urban areas. The relationship holds with controls for health status and health insurance. The pattern in Nebraska reflects an absence of differences in income, health insurance, and health status that produce differences in access between rural and urban areas nationwide. The findings suggest that any serious proposal to reform health care delivery should involve the states and use established patterns of seeking care among state residents.     

Awareness and Management of Chronic Disease, Insurance Status, and Health Professional Shortage Areas in the REasons for Geographic and Racial Differences in Stroke (REGARDS): A Cross-Sectional Study

ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: Limited financial and geographic access to primary care can adversely influence chronic disease outcomes. We examined variation in awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension, diabetes, and hyperlipidemia according to both geographic and financial access to care. METHODS: We analyzed data on 17,458 participants in the REasons for Geographic And Racial Differences in Stroke (REGARDS) study with either hypertension, hyperlipidemia, or diabetes and living in either complete Health Professional Shortage Area (HPSA) counties or non-HPSA counties in the U.S. All analyses were stratified by insurance status and adjusted for sociodemographics and health behaviors. RESULTS: 2,261 residents lived in HPSA counties and 15,197 in non-HPSA counties. Among the uninsured, HPSA residents had higher awareness of both hypertension (adjusted OR 2.30, 95% CI 1.08, 4.89) and hyperlipidemia (adjusted OR 1.50, 95% CI 1.01, 2.22) compared to non-HPSA residents. Also among the uninsured, HPSA residents with hypertension had lower blood pressure control (adjusted OR 0.45, 95% CI 0.29, 0.71) compared with non-HPSA residents. Similar differences in awareness and control according to HPSA residence were absent among the insured. CONCLUSIONS: Despite similar or higher awareness of some chronic diseases, uninsured HPSA residents may achieve control of hypertension at lower rates compared to uninsured non-HPSA residents. Federal allocations in HPSAs should target improved quality of care as well as increasing the number of available physicians.     

Disability in two health care systems: access, quality, satisfaction, and physician contacts among working-age Canadians and Americans with disabilities

BackgroundAn overarching question in health policy concerns whether the current mix of public and private health coverage in the United States can be, in one way or another, expanded to include all persons as it does in Canada. As typically high-end consumers of health care services, people with disabilities are key stakeholders to consider in this debate. The risk is that ways to cover more persons may be found only by sacrificing the quantity or quality of care on which people with disabilities so frequently depend. Yet, despite the many comparisons made of Canadian and U.S. health care, few focus directly on the needs of people with disabilities or the uninsured among them in the United States. This research is intended to address these gaps. Given this background, we compare the health care experiences of working-age uninsured and insured Americans with Canadian individuals (all of whom, insured) with a special focus on disability. Two questions for research guide our inquiry: (1) On the basis of disability severity level and health insurance status, are there differences in self-reported measures of access, utilization, satisfaction with, or quality of health care services within or between the United States and Canada? (2) After controlling covariates, when examining each level of disability severity, are there any significant differences in these measures of access, utilization, satisfaction, or quality between U.S. insured and Canadian persons?MethodsCross-sectional data from the Joint Canada/United States Survey of Health (JCUSH) are analyzed with particular attention to disability severity level (none, nonsevere, or severe) among three analytic groups of working age residents (insured Americans, uninsured Americans, and Canadians). Differences in three measures of access, one measure of satisfaction with care, one quality of care measure, and two varieties of physician contacts are compared. Multivariate methods are then used to compare the healthcare experiences of insured U.S. and Canadian persons on the basis of disability level while controlling covariates.ResultsIn covariate-controlled comparisons of insured Americans and Canadians, we find that people with disabilities report higher levels of unmet need than do their counterparts without disabilities, with no difference in this result between the nations. Our findings on access to medications and satisfaction with care among people with disabilities are similar, suggesting worse outcomes for people with disabilities, but few differences between insured U.S. and Canadian individuals. Generally, we find higher percentages who report having a regular physician, and higher contact rates with physicians among people with disabilities than among people without them in both countries. We find no evidence that total physician contacts are restricted in Canada relative to insured Americans at any of the disability levels. Yet we do find that quality ratings are lower among Canadian respondents than among insured Americans. However, bivariate estimates on access, satisfaction, quality, and physician contacts reveal particularly poor outcomes for uninsured persons with severe disabilities in the United States. For example, almost 40% do not report having a regular physician, 65% report that they need at least one medication that they cannot afford, 45% are not satisfied with the way their care is provided, 40% rate the overall quality of their care as fair or poor, and significant reductions in contacts with two types of physicians are evident within this group as well.ConclusionBased on these results, we find evidence of disparities in health care on the basis of disability in both Canada and the United States. However, despite the fact that Canada makes health insurance coverage available to all residents, we find few significant reductions in access, satisfaction or physician contacts among Canadians with disabilities relative to their insured American counterparts. These results place a spotlight on the experiences of uninsured persons with disabilities in America and suggest further avenues for research.     

Does the Universal Health Insurance Program Affect Urban‐Rural Differences in Health Service Utilization Among the Elderly? Evidence From a Longitudinal Study in Taiwan

Purpose: To assess the impact of the introduction of Taiwan's National Health Insurance (NHI) on urban‐rural inequality in health service utilization among the elderly. Methods: A longitudinal data set of 1,504 individuals aged 65 and older was constructed from the Survey of Health and Living Status of the Elderly. A difference‐in‐differences model was employed and estimated by the random‐effect probit method. Finding: The introduction of universal NHI in Taiwan heterogeneously affected outpatient and inpatient health service utilization among the elderly in urban and rural areas. The introduction of NHI reduced the disparity of outpatient (inpatient) utilization between the previously uninsured and insured older urban residents by 12.9 (22.0) percentage points. However, there was no significant reduction in the utilization disparity between the previously uninsured and insured elderly among rural residents. Conclusions: Our study on Taiwan's experience should provide a valuable lesson to countries that are in an initial stage of proposing a universal health insurance system. Although NHI is designed to ensure the equitable right to access health care, it may result in differential impacts on health service utilization among the elderly across areas. The rural elderly tend to confront more challenges in accessing health care associated with spatial distance, transportation, social isolation, poverty, and a lack of health care providers, especially medical specialists.     

Emergency Room Visits by Uninsured Child and Adult Residents in Ontario,Canada: What Diagnoses,Severity and Visit Disposition Reveal About the Impact of Being Uninsured

Canadian immigrants can be without health insurance for many reasons but limited data exists regarding uninsured health outcomes. Uninsured Canadian residents were identified in the National Ambulatory Care Reporting System for all visits to emergency departments in Ontario, Canada between 2002/3 and 2010/11 (N = 44,489,750). Frequencies for main diagnoses, severity (triage), and visit disposition were compared. Ambulatory care sensitive conditions were identified in a 10 % subsample. The uninsured (N = 140,730; 0.32 %) were more likely to be diagnosed with mental health (insured: 3.48 %; uninsured: 10.47 %) or obstetric problems (insured: 2.69 %; uninsured: 5.56 %), be triaged into the two most severe categories (insured: 11.2 %; uninsured 15.6 %), leave untreated (insured: 3.1 %; uninsured: 5.4 %), or die (insured: 2.8 %; uninsured: 3.7 %). More ACSC visits were made by uninsured children and youth. Insurance status is associated with more serious health status on arrival to emergency departments and more negative visit outcomes.     

Access to and Use of Eye Care Services in Rural Arkansas

Context: Rural residents are more likely to be uninsured and have low income.
Purpose: To determine if rural residents in Arkansas have decreased access to eye care services and use them less frequently than urban residents.
Methods: Data from the 2006 Visual Impairment and Access to Eye Care Module from the Arkansas Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) were used in the analysis. Adults age 40 years and older were included (n = 4,289). Results were weighted to reflect the age, race, and gender distribution of the population of Arkansas. Multiple logistic regression was used to adjust for demographic differences between rural and urban populations.
Findings: Significantly fewer rural residents (45%) reported having insurance coverage for eye care services compared with residents living in urban areas (55%). Rural residents were less likely (45%) than urban residents (49%) to have had a dilated eye exam within the past year. Among residents aged 40-64, those from rural areas were more likely than their urban counterparts to report cost/lack of insurance as the main reason for not having a recent eye care visit.
Conclusions: In 2006, rates of eye care insurance coverage were significantly lower for rural residents while use of eye care services differed slightly between rural and urban residents. Rural residents in Arkansas age 40-64 would benefit from having increased access to eye care insurance and/or low cost eye care services.     

Overcoming the Odds: Access to Care for Immigrant Children in Working Poor Families in California

Objectives: To explore the extent to which, among working poor families, uninsured immigrant children experience more barriers to care than uninsured nonimmigrants, and compare these differences to those of insured children. Methods: We used data from the 2001 California Health Interview Survey, a randomized, population-based telephone survey conducted from November 2000 through September 2001. Financial and nonfinancial access to health care and utilization of health services were examined for 3,978 nonimmigrant and 462 immigrant children and adolescents under the age of 18 years. We compared differences in crude rates across four subgroups (insured immigrants, uninsured immigrants, insured nonimmigrants, uninsured nonimmigrants) and in adjusted models controlling for socioeconomic and immigration characteristics, parental language, health status, and other demographic factors. Results: More immigrant than nonimmigrant children lacked health insurance at the time of the interview (44% vs. 17%, p < 0.0001). Among the uninsured, immigrants had higher odds of perceiving discrimination (11% vs. 5%, p < 0.05) and postponing emergency room (ER) (16% vs. 7%, p < 0.05) and dental care (40% vs. 30%, p < 0.05) after controlling for covariates. Among the insured, immigrants fared worse on almost every access and utilization outcome. Among insured immigrants, child and parent undocumented status and having a non-English-speaking parent contributed to missed physician and ER visits. Conclusions: Disparities in access and use remain for immigrant poor children despite public insurance eligibility expansions. Insurance does not guarantee equitable health care access and use for undocumented children. Financial and nonfinancial barriers to health care for immigrant children must be removed if we are to address disparities among minority children.