Neurological and neuropsychological consequences of electrical and lightning shock:review and theories of causation

Injuries from lightning and electrical injuries involve multiple systems of the body, however neurological symptoms are very widely reported. A disabling neuropsychological syndrome is also noted.This paper presents a comprehensive review of neurological and neuropsychological symptoms. Partial theories of causation for these injuries have been advanced, however, there is no convincing explanation for both delay in onset of symptoms and also the genesis of the neuropsychological syndrome. A theory of causation is proposed which satisfies both these constraints.This theory suggests circulating hormones such as cortisol, together with nitric oxide and oxidant free radicals from glutamatergic hyper-stimulation, act on tissues remote from the injury path including the hippocampus.This theory opens a research path to explore treat-ment options.     

Seven principles for command and the neural causation of behavior

The concept of command is central to motor control theories and explanations for the initiation of behavior patterns. As currently conceived, command is a process of individual command neurons that receive sensory and other integrative information and trigger the expression of behavioral acts. We show that this concept is an inadequate framework in which to discover the neural mechanisms underlying the decision and execution processes that occur when an animal begins a behavioral act. We herein propose a new concept of command which is based on a suite of principles. In this concept, command is a dynamic system property intermediate to neurophysiological and behavioral contexts and independent of preconceived causal paradigms, methods, or structures. We visualize command within a neurobehavioral or neuroethological context. This provisional concept provides a way of thinking, and an approach for discovering the neural processes that underlie behavioral performance.     

Misleading tests of health behavior theories

Most tests of cognitively oriented theories of health behavior are based on correlational data. Unfortunately, such tests are often biased, overestimating the accuracy of the theories they seek to evaluate. These biases are especially strong when studies examine health behaviors that need to be performed repeatedly, such as medication adherence, diet, exercise, and condom use. Several misleading data analysis procedures further exaggerate the theories' predictive accuracy. Because correlational designs are not adequate for deciding whether a particular construct affects behavior or for testing one theory against another, most of the literature aiming to test these theories tells us little about their validity or completeness. Neither does the existing empirical literature support decisions to use these theories to design interventions. In addition to discussing problems with correlational data, this article offers ideas for alternative testing strategies.     

Instinctive modulation of cognitive behavior: a human evoked potential study

Successful adaptive behavior requires fast information processing. Behavioral switches may be necessary in response to threatening stimuli or when anticipated outcomes fail to occur. In this study, we explored the cortical processing of these two components using high-resolution evoked potentials. Subjects made a reversal learning task where they had to predict which one of two faces had a target stimulus on the nose. We found early electrocortical differences at 100-200 ms depending on whether the target stimulus was a spider or a disk. Source estimation indicated that this distinction was mediated by an anterior medial temporal region including the amygdala and adjacent cortex. When a switch to the alternate face was required, there was a discrete early electrocortical correlate after 200 ms, mediated by ventromedial prefrontal areas. Continued validity of stimulus-target associations was signaled at 400-520 ms, mediated by the parahippocampal region. The study indicates rapid serial processing of innate emotional quality, then cognitive-behavioral relevance of stimuli, mediated by limbic and paralimbic structures.     

Investigating cognitive neuroscience theories of human intelligence: A connectome‐based predictive modeling approach

Central to modern neuroscientific theories of human intelligence is the notion that general intelligence depends on a primary brain region or network, engaging spatially localized (rather than global) neural representations. Recent findings in network neuroscience, however, challenge this assumption, providing evidence that general intelligence may depend on system‐wide network mechanisms, suggesting that local representations are necessary but not sufficient to account for the neural architecture of human intelligence. Despite the importance of this key theoretical distinction, prior research has not systematically investigated the role of local versus global neural representations in predicting general intelligence. We conducted a large‐scale connectome‐based predictive modeling study (N = 297), administering resting‐state fMRI and a comprehensive cognitive battery to evaluate the efficacy of modern neuroscientific theories of human intelligence, including spatially localized theories (Lateral Prefrontal Cortex Theory, Parieto‐Frontal Integration Theory, and Multiple Demand Theory) and recent global accounts (Process Overlap Theory and Network Neuroscience Theory). The results of our study demonstrate that general intelligence can be predicted by local functional connectivity profiles but is most robustly explained by global profiles of whole‐brain connectivity. Our findings further suggest that the improved efficacy of global theories is not reducible to a greater strength or number of connections, but instead results from considering both strong and weak connections that provide the basis for intelligence (as predicted by the Network Neuroscience Theory). Our results highlight the importance of considering local neural representations in the context of a global information‐processing architecture, suggesting future directions for theory‐driven research on system‐wide network mechanisms underlying general intelligence.     

Amphetamine and chick behavior. A role for monoamines in the causation of vocalizations and emotions

The effects of amphetamine (AMP) on the behaviour of domestic chicks were studied by methods of direct observation of behaviour. 7.5 mg/kg d-amphetamine sulphate injected into 5-day-old chicks characteristically facilitated vocalization-a period of peeps followed by short calls (twitters and short peeps), head shakes, forced locomotion and wing drooping; and decreased the duration of eye closure. AMP also increased the responsiveness of chicks to external stimuli. Bilateral lesions in the midbrain inhibited primarily the vocalizations but not the other behavioural changes produced by AMP. Evidence is presented to explain the neurochemical basis of the AMP-induced behaviour: namely, that peeping depends on 5-hydroxytryptamine-dependent mechanisms, which may also influence the postural changes, and head shakes, whereas short calls may be mediated by an interaction between dopaminergic and tryptaminergic mechanisms. It is suggested that the monoamines may also be involved in the attentional changes associated with the vocalizations.     

Comments about cognitive therapy and behavior therapy

This article identifies, describes and discusses two major sources of controversy between cognitive therapists and behavior therapists. One class of conflict has been generated by specific misinterpretations of opposing viewpoints. Appropriate quotations are used in an attempt to clarify the views of the major protagonists. The other source of conflict is the metaphysical issue of mind-body dualism and differing definitions of psychology. After discussing justifications for renewed research on cognitive interactions and the major behaviorist objections to such an effort, the author recommends intensified applications of behavioral technology in the socio-economic and political arena.     

Social behavior in mild cognitive impairment and early dementia

Social behavioral abnormalities are commonly seen in the later stages of dementia. However, there has been only limited empirical study of social functioning in the earlier stages of the disease, or in individuals diagnosed with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). The aim of the present study was to test whether these clinical groups show more socially inappropriate and prejudicial behavior relative to controls, as rated by informants. No group differences were identified for ratings of either socially appropriate behavior or stereotyping and prejudice. However, the results also indicated that informants rated participants with dementia as showing the most inappropriate behavior, and that these ratings were related to participants' degree of immediate logical memory impairment, but not to delayed memory recall or to more general neurocognitive decline as indexed by the Mini Mental State Examination. Together, these results have implications for an understanding of some of the changes in social function seen in abnormal adult aging.     

Elevated anxiety and depressive-like behavior in a rat model of genetic generalized epilepsy suggesting common causation

The explanation for the increased prevalence of neuropsychiatric disorders in epilepsy patients is uncertain, with both biological and psychosocial factors proposed. Increasing evidence supports the idea of shared neurobiological processes leading both to seizures and to behavioral, emotional and cognitive disturbance. This study addresses this using Genetic Absence Epilepsy Rats from Strasbourg (GAERS), a model of human generalized epilepsy. We subjected GAERS (n=47) and Non-Epileptic Control rats (NEC; n=73) to behavioral measures of depression and anxiety at 7 and 13 weeks of age, ages prior to and after seizure onset. We employed the Sucrose-Preference Test (SPT), the Elevated Plus Maze (EPM), and the Open Field Arena (OFA). GAERS exhibited significantly greater levels of both depression- and anxiety-like behaviors on all measures, including reduced consumption of sucrose solution in the SPT; lower percentage of time in the open arms of the EPM; and reduced exploratory activity and less time spent in the inner area of the OFA. These differences were evident at both 7 and 13 weeks of age, before and after the onset of epilepsy. Increased anxiety- and depressive-like behaviors are observed in GAERS. These behavioral differences exist before the onset of seizures indicating that they are not secondary consequences of seizures, and suggest shared factors in the biological diathesis underlying the two kinds of disorder. Studying affective disturbance in animal models of epilepsy may illuminate the pathogenesis of affective disorder more generally, as well as modeling psychiatric comorbidities common in epilepsy patients.     

Current status of research on cognitive therapy/cognitive behavior therapy in Japan

Cognitive therapy/cognitive behavior therapy was introduced into the field of psychiatry in the late 1980s in Japan, and the Japanese Association for Cognitive Therapy (JACT), founded in 2004, now has more than 1500 members. Along with such progress, awareness of the effectiveness of cognitive therapy/cognitive behavioral therapy has spread, not only among professionals and academics but also to the public. The Study Group of the Procedures and Effectiveness of Psychotherapy, funded by the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, has conducted a series of studies on the effectiveness of cognitive therapy/cognitive behavior therapy since 2006 and shown that it is feasible for Japanese patients. As a result, in April 2010 cognitive therapy/cognitive behavior therapy for mood disorders was added to the national health insurance scheme in Japan. This marked a milestone in Japan's psychiatric care, where pharmacotherapy has historically been more common. In this article the authors review research on cognitive therapy/cognitive behavior therapy in Japan.     

Caregiver cognitive status and potentially harmful caregiver behavior

The association between caregiver cognitive status and potentially harmful caregiver behavior was assessed in a sample of 180 caregiver-care recipient dyads. Compromised cognitive status was identified in 39% of these informal caregivers. Beyond variance explained by demographic factors, amount of care provided, care recipient cognitive status, and caregiver depressed affect, care recipients reported more frequently being subjected to potentially harmful caregiver behavior when their caregivers evidenced compromised cognitive status. While preliminary, critical areas of caregiver cognition appeared to be deficits in language comprehension and memory. Results indicate that compromised cognitive status is common among informal caregivers of impaired elders and that this may adversely influence the quality of care they provide.