Historical sketch of modern pharmaceutical science and technology (Part 4). Post World War II 50 years

A short history of the pharmaceutical science and technology, postwar 50 years is divided into nine sections for the purpose of discussion. 1. Japan's postwar rehabilitation, Japanese pharmaceutical industries and newly developed pharmaceutical sciences and technologies. In 1945, the Japanese pharmaceutical industry was reconstructed. Production of penicillin was carried out with the strong support of the U.S. Occupation Forces. New sciences in pharmacy (biochemistry, biopharmacy, pharmacology, microbiology, physical chemistry, etc.) were introduced in this period. 2. Introduction age of foreign new drugs and technology (1951 to 1960s). Japan gained independence in 1951. Japanese pharmaceutical companies imported many new drugs and new pharmaceutical technologies from the U.S.A. and European countries in this period. Then, these companies were reconstruction rapidly. However, consequently Japanese pharmaceutical companies were formed as an imitation industry. 3. Rapid economic growth period for pharmaceutical companies (1956 to 1970s). In this period, many Japanese pharmaceutical companies grew rapidly at an annual rate of 15-20% over a period of 15 years, especially with regard to the production of active vitamin B1 analog drugs and some OTC (public health drugs). Some major companies made large profits, which were used to construct research facilities. 4. Problems for the harmful effects of medicines and its ethical responsibility. In the 1970s, many public toxic and harmful effects of medicines were caused, especially SMON's disease. In this time, many pharmaceutical companies changed to its security got development of ethical drugs. 5. Self development of new drugs and administration of pharmaceutical rules (1970s). During the 1970s, many pharmaceutical laws (GLP, GCP, GMP, GPMSP etc.) were enacted by the Ministry of Health and Welfare. In 1976, the Japanese Pharmaceutical Affairs Law was revised, which set forth standards regarding the efficacy and safety of ethical drugs and re-evaluation of drugs. Many facilities were built for the purpose of ensuring efficacy and safety, as shwon in Table 1. 6. Problems of Intellectual Property and followed the revisionist line of research and development for new ethical drugs. In 1976, Japanese pharmaceutical companies ceased to be an imitation industry, and increased research for the development of new drugs. 7. Pharmaceutical science and technology innovation (After 1985). Many of the pharmaceutical innovations during this period were as follows: 7.1) Technology innovation for evaluation of drug efficacy; 7.2) 1st to 3rd medical diagnostic technology innovations; 7.3) medical analytical methods and spectrometry technologies; 7.4) Computer-aided drug-design technology and drug information technology innovation; and 7.5) Drug delivery system and treatment drugs. 8. Recent research and development of new ethical drugs in Japan (1970 to 1995). Cephalosporine type beta-lactams (cefazolin, cefametazole, furomoxef, cefdinir), new quinolones (norfloxcin, ofloxacin, tosfloxcin), H1-Blockers (famotidine), Ca-antagonists (diltiazem, nicardipine), and other new drugs (pravastatine, taclolimus, leuprine) etc. came onto the market. 9. International Harmonization Age and Review toward 21 century. The rapid development and globalization of the pharmaceutical market has promoted international harmonization and rationalization of pharmaceutical regulatory affairs. In 1990, the Japan Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association published a report toward 21 century, which described practical plans.     

Origin,development and current status of pharmaceutical education steering organizations in China

Pharmaceutical education in China has evolved from the stages of scale expansion to quality improvement. In order to improve the quality and provide guidance for pharmaceutical education, the Ministry of Education has successively established several pharmaceutical education steering committees. The establishment and development of these committees are closely related to the current development of pharmaceutical education and industry in China. They have prompted the development of pharmaceutical education by providing guidance on related theories, policies, experience and information. This article is to present the establishment, development, current status and memberships of pharmaceutical education steering committees in China.     

A history of a hundred years of pharmaceutical education in Japan

The history of a hundred years of pharmaceutical education in Japan is divided into six periods for the purposes of discussion. 1. Founding period of the pharmaceutical education in the Meiji era (1873-1879) The Department of Manufacturing Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tokyo was established in 1873 (now, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, the University of Tokyo). The purpose of this school was for professional training to accommodate growing imported Western drugs. 2. Building period of the pharmaceutical education in the Meiji era. (1880-1911) The Pharmaceutical society of Japan (academic) was established in 1880, and then 13 years later (1893) the Japan Pharmaceutical Association (professional) was established. The order of establishments, first academic and then professional, was opposite of the history in European countries. Twenty-nine schools of pharmacy were built in the Meiji era, however 20 schools of pharmacy have been closed. 3. Developing period the pharmaceutical education in the Taisho era and half of the Showa era (1912-1944) Seventeen pharmaceutical colleges were built in these periods. Pharmaceutical chemistry, pharmacognosy, hygenic chemistry, and manufacturing chemistry were mainly taught in these schools of pharmacy, however pharmacology, bacteriology, and biochemistry were not taught in these schools. 4. Reform of pharmaceutical education system after the World War II (1945-1960) In 1949, the Japanese education system was reformed, and then 46 colleges and universities of pharmacy were built. Then, the number of students doubled to 8,000. Graduates from pharmaceutical colleges and universities, pharmaceutical departments were eligible to take the national pharmacists licence examination which was conducted by the Ministry of Health and Welfare. The standard of the pharmaceutical education system was revised in 1656, recommending that the single pharmaceutical departments at the colleges of pharmacy by replaced by three departments, pharmacy, manufacturing pharmacy and biological pharmacy. 5. Improvement and developement of pharmaceutical education (1961-1985) Many universities and colleges were founded, and there are currently 46 universities and colleges. Every year, some 8,000 people who study pharmacy at 14 national, 3 public and 29 private universities enter the profession on graduation. About 60 percent found jobs in the pharmaceutical industry, and the remainder work as pharmacists in hospitals and pharmacies. 6. Recent movements toward reform in pharmaceutical education (1986-present) Two amendments to the Medical Services Law in 1986 and 1992 have specified clearly the role to be played by pharmacists and pharmacies within their local medical service and has sharpened the distinction between medicine and pharmacy. Thus, in 1994, the period required for graduation is proposed by a committee of the Ministry of Health and Welfare, supplementing of the current 4-year undergraduate pharmacy course with a 2-year postgraduate master's degree course or a 6-year new pharmaceutical education system including practical training in a medical institution for a period of at least 6 months.     

Delivering the power of discovery in large pharmaceutical organizations

Increasing the output from discovery is currently a major objective for the pharmaceutical industry aimed at reversing recent downward trends in productivity. Although significant attention has been focused on innovative assay and process technologies, these only address specific points in the discovery process. Little effort has been made to manage the multiple interconnected steps within discovery effectively. This manifests itself in low utilization rates of component elements and low expectations of delivery to any agreed timescale.     

Historical sketch of modern pharmaceutical science and technology (Part 3). From the second half of the 19th century to World War II

The history of modern pharmaceutical science and technology, from the second half of the 19th century to the end of World War II, is divided into nine sections for the purpose of discussion. 1. The European medical and pharmaceutical science and technology at the end of the 19th century is reviewed. Pharmacology, bacteriology and biochemistry were built in this period. 2. The Meiji Government accepted Western medicine and medical law and regulations in 1883. Consequently, the Japanese physician changed from Eastern (Kanpooi) to Western (Seiyooi). 3. Modern scientific and engineering education had been accepted in America, England, Germany, and France etc. Foreign scientists and engineers (Oyatoi-gai-kokujin) were educated by practice and theory. The Faculty of Engineering was established in the universities in Japan. This fact is one of the differences in the history of universities in Europe and America. 4. Pharmaceutical education in the Meiji period (1873-1911). Twenty-nine schools of pharmacy were built in this period. However, 20 schools of pharmacy had been closed. Pharmacy and pharmaceutical industry was not established in the Meiji era. 5. The profession of pharmacist in 1873-1944. The policy of medicine was changed by the Meiji Government in 1889, when Western physicians were allowed to prepare medicines for patients, and this practice continues today. Political and technological power of Japanese pharmacists was weak, so their role was not estimated. 6. Consequences of world War I, and the establishment of the pharmaceutical industry. The Sino-Japanese War (1894-95) and Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) were won fortunately. The first pharmaceutical company was established in 1885. At this times, many pharmaceutical manufacturing companies, which were converted from whole sale merchants, were built. Then started the manufacturing of commercial drugs. 7. Hygienic chemistry and some problems of public hygiene. The causes of diseses unique to Japan, such as beriberi (Katuke), were searched for in medical and agricultural laboratories. Dr. Suzuki discovered olizanine from rice bran, which was effective for deficiency of vitamin B1 disease. However, pharmaceutical scientists did not participate in this research. Hygienic and forensic chemistry were included in pharmaceutical departments. 8. Pharmaceutical scientific studies in Europe and Japan in the first half of the 20th century. The discovery of a drug for the treatment of syphilis by Ehrlich-Hata (1889), then chemotherapeutics were started. Adrenalin, the first isolated hormone, by Takamine (1900), after this time many hormones were discovered. The first Japanese pharmacists who studied abroad studied in Germany and came back to Japan. Then, they built the pharmaceutical sciences. Studies on natural products by chemistry and organic chemistry were started. 9. Pharmaceutical scientific and technology during 15 Years of War (1931-45). Since 1930, theoretical organic chemistry was developed in England and America. The discovery of chemotherapeutics and antibiotics (sulfonamides and penicillin) and studies on some vitamins and hormones proceeded during the 15 years of war (1931-45) at Tokyo and Kyoto Universities, and some institutes in China and Manchuria. Studies on anti-maralia, sulfonamides and penicillins were carried out.     

基于培养药学服务能力为目的的高职药理学教学改革与实践

采用任务驱动法,通过现场模拟、角色扮演等方式的一体化教学,对药理学教学模式和方法进行改革,修订课程标准,重组实践教学内容,改革考核方式,使课程内容对接企业岗位,激发学生学习兴趣,提高学生实践能力,培养学生药学服务意识,提高教学效果。     

药学专业药理学实验教学改革的探索

目的 总结近来药学专业药理学实验教学改革实践,为进一步提高教学质量积累经验.方法 从课程及条件建设、教学内容及方法,以及考核方法等方面进行改革.结果与结论 通过使用先进实验仪器、增加课外自主设计实验和”模拟药房”实习等措施,培养学生独立思考和创新的能力,提升了药理学实验教学质量.