Calcineurin as a potential contributor in estradiol regulation of hippocampal synaptic function

Estradiol influences Ca(2+) regulation and Ca(2+)-dependent synaptic plasticity, suggesting estrogenic effects on Ca(2+)-dependent enzymes that regulate synaptic plasticity may mediate hormonal influences on cognition. In ovariectomized female rats, injections of estradiol benzoate (EB, 10 microg) reduced hippocampal cytosolic activity of serine/threonine protein phosphatases, calcineurin and protein phosphatase 1 (PP1). The decreased activity was rapid and recovered substantially over a 24-h period. Decreased calcineurin activity was associated with a decreased level of calcineurin in the cytosol. In contrast, expression of PP1 was not altered suggesting that the level of calcineurin activity regulated PP1 activity. EB application to hippocampal slices rapidly decreased cytosolic phosphatase activity, which was not blocked by the estrogen receptor antagonist, ICI 182780. Decreased phosphatase activity was associated with an increase in CA3-CA1 synaptic transmission. In addition, EB application shifted synaptic plasticity, blocking the induction of long-term depression and facilitating the establishment of long-term potentiation. The reduction in calcineurin activity and shift in synaptic plasticity were mimicked to a lesser extent by 17-alpha-estradiol. From these results we suggest that EB can act to rapidly influence Ca(2+) signaling pathways including the activity of Ca(2+)-regulated phosphatases involved in synaptic plasticity.     

Rapid, experience-dependent expression of synaptic NMDA receptors in visual cortex in vivo

Sensory experience is crucial in the refinement of synaptic connections in the brain during development. It has been suggested that some forms of experience-dependent synaptic plasticity in vivo are associated with changes in the complement of postsynaptic glutamate receptors, although direct evidence has been lacking. Here we show that visual experience triggers the rapid synaptic insertion of new NMDA receptors in visual cortex. The new receptors have a higher proportion of NR2A subunits and, as a consequence, different functional properties. This effect of experience requires NMDA receptor activation and protein synthesis. Thus, rapid regulation of postsynaptic glutamate receptors is one mechanism for developmental plasticity in the brain. Changes in NMDA receptor expression provide a mechanism by which brief sensory experience can regulate the properties of NMDA receptor-dependent plasticity in visual cortex.     

Regulation of hippocampal synaptic plasticity by cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinases

Protein kinases critically regulate synaptic plasticity in the mammalian hippocampus. Cyclic-AMP dependent protein kinase (PKA) is a serine–threonine kinase that has been strongly implicated in the expression of specific forms of long-term potentiation (LTP), long-term depression (LTD), and hippocampal long-term memory. We review the roles of PKA in activity-dependent forms of hippocampal synaptic plasticity by highlighting particular themes that have emerged in ongoing research. These include the participation of distinct isoforms of PKA in specific types of synaptic plasticity, modification of the PKA-dependence of LTP by multiple factors such as distinct patterns of imposed activity, environmental enrichment, and genetic manipulation of signalling molecules, and presynaptic versus postsynaptic mechanisms for PKA-dependent LTP. We also discuss many of the substrates that have been implicated as targets for PKA’s actions in hippocampal synaptic plasticity, including CREB, protein phosphatases, and glutamatergic receptors. Future prospects for shedding light on the roles of PKA are also described from the perspective of specific aspects of synaptic physiology and brain function that are ripe for investigation using incisive genetic, cell biological, and electrophysiological approaches.     

cAMP反应元件结合蛋白(CREB)在单眼剥夺弱视大鼠视皮层中的表达研究

目前已对突触可塑性的基本特性有了相当程度的认识 ,但对其发育中神经元可塑性的内在分子机制尚待进一步阐明。不少研究提示 ,c AMP反应元件结合蛋白 ( CREB)在学习、记忆和长时程增强 ( LTP)过程中参与长时程突触的可塑性调节 ,推测其在视觉系统可塑性中也发挥着重要作用。本研究通过建立幼年大鼠单眼剥夺弱视模型 ,应用免疫组织化学方法 ,对视觉发育关键期末 ( P45 )大鼠和成年 ( P90 )大鼠视皮层中 CREB和 p CREB的免疫反应性进行观察、比较和分析。结果 :视觉发育关键期内进行单眼视觉剥夺对大鼠视皮层内总 CREB的蛋白表达没有产生显著影响 ,而 p CREB在 P45大鼠的剥夺眼对侧视皮层单眼反应区的 / 、 层中的蛋白表达较剥夺眼同侧视皮层的相应区域弱 ,该差异在该年龄大鼠的双眼反应区及成年后大鼠视皮层内不存在。结论 :CREB可能通过该磷酸化形式在视觉系统可塑性中发挥作用     

The effects of binocular suture and dark rearing on the induction of c-fos protein in the rat visual cortex during and after the critical period

It has been demonstrated in kittens that binocular lid suture has more deleterious and irreversible effects on plasticity of the developing visual system than rearing in complete darkness. The present study using immunocytochemistry focuses on the effects of the two types of visual deprivation on the inducibility of c-fos protein in visual cortical neurons of rats. Rats were subjected to binocular suture or dark rearing for 1 week during (postnatal days 14-21; P14-P21) and after (P50-P57) the critical period for activity-dependent modifiability of cortical ocular dominance. In rats of both age groups reared in the normal light-dark condition, only a small number of Fos-immunoreactive neurons was obtained in the visual cortex. By contrast, in dark-reared pups and adult rats, numerous c-fos neurons were detected in the layers II-IV and VI of the visual cortex following a brief light exposure (1 h). In rats of both ages subjected to binocular suture, Fos neurons were detected in the same layers as in the dark-reared rats, but significantly less in number. We speculate that the reduced plasticity of the visual cortex in the rats subjected to binocular suture may be due partly to the repressed AP-1 activity in visual cortical neurons. No significant difference was detected in c-fos expression in the visual cortex between visually manipulated pups and adult rats.     

蛋白激酶α和β在视觉剥夺性大鼠视皮层中表达变化的初步研究

目的　检测蛋白激酶α和 β(PKCα、PKCβ)在正常大鼠视皮层及视觉剥夺性视皮层中的蛋白表达情况 ,为探讨视觉发育可塑性提供分子基础。方法　采用剥夺性弱视大鼠模型 ,用特异的PKCα和PKCβ抗体对脑切片进行免疫组化。 结果　正常视皮层中 ,这两种PKC同工酶在除Ⅰ层外的其余各层均有显著表达。视觉剥夺的视皮层缺乏正常视皮层那样的清晰分层。与正常视皮层比较 ,弱视眼对侧视皮层中PKCα在Ⅱ～Ⅳ层的蛋白表达广泛减少 ,PKCβ在Ⅱ～Ⅴ层的表达强度明显减弱。结论　PKCα、PKCβ的蛋白表达水平在剥夺性视皮层发育障碍过程中发生了显著改变 ,它们可能参与视皮层发育可塑性的分子机制。     

Phosphatase regulation of macrophage activation

Macrophages are innate immune cells that play critical roles in tissue homeostasis and the immune response to invading pathogens or tumor cells. A hallmark of macrophages is their “plasticity,” that is, their ability to respond to cues in their local microenvironment and adapt their activation state or phenotype to mount an appropriate response. During the inflammatory response, macrophages may be required to mount a profound anti-bacterial or anti-tumor response, an anti-inflammatory response, an anti-parasitic response, or a wound healing response. To do so, macrophages express cell surface receptors for growth factors, chemokines and cytokines, as well pathogen and danger associated molecular patterns. Downstream of these cell surface receptors, cell signalling cascades are activated and deactivated by reversible and competing activities of lipid and protein kinases and phosphatases. While kinases drive the activation of cell signalling pathways critical for macrophage activation, the strength and duration of the signalling is regulated by phosphatases. Hence, gene knockout mouse models have revealed critical roles for lipid and protein phosphatases in macrophage activation. Herein, we describe our current understanding and the key roles of specific cellular phosphatases in the regulation of the quality of macrophage polarization as well as the quantity of cytokines produced by activated macrophages.     

Calcium-dependent phosphorylation regulates neuronal stability and plasticity in a highly precise pacemaker nucleus

Specific types of neurons show stable, predictable excitability properties, while other neurons show transient adaptive plasticity of their excitability. However, little attention has been paid to how the cellular pathways underlying adaptive plasticity interact with those that maintain neuronal stability. We addressed this question in the pacemaker neurons from a weakly electric fish because these neurons show a highly stable spontaneous firing rate as well as an N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor-dependent form of plasticity. We found that basal firing rates were regulated by a serial interaction of conventional and atypical PKC isoforms and that this interaction establishes individual differences within the species. We observed that NMDA receptor-dependent plasticity is achieved by further activation of these kinases. Importantly, the PKC pathway is maintained in an unsaturated baseline state to allow further Ca(2+)-dependent activation during plasticity. On the other hand, the Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent phosphatase calcineurin does not regulate baseline firing but is recruited to control the duration of the NMDA receptor-dependent plasticity and return the pacemaker firing rate back to baseline. This work illustrates how neuronal plasticity can be realized by biasing ongoing mechanisms of stability (e.g., PKC) and terminated by recruiting alternative mechanisms (e.g., calcineurin) that constrain excitability. We propose this as a general model for regulating activity-dependent change in neuronal excitability.     

Substrates for coincidence detection and calcium signaling for induction of synaptic potentiation in the neonatal visual cortex

Regulation of the efficacy of synaptic transmission by activity-dependent processes has been implicated in learning and memory as well as in developmental processes. We previously described transient potentiation of excitatory synapses onto layer 2/3 pyramidal neurons in the visual cortex that is induced by coincident presynaptic stimulation and postsynaptic depolarization. In the adult visual cortex, activation of N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) glutamate receptors is necessary to induce this plasticity. These receptors act as coincidence detectors, sensing presynaptic glutamate release and postsynaptic depolarization, and cause an influx of Ca(2+) that is necessary for the potentiation. In the neurons of the neonatal visual cortex, on the other hand, coincident presynaptic stimulation and postsynaptic depolarization induce stable long-term potentiation (LTP). In addition, reduced but significant LTP can be induced in many neurons in the presence of the NMDA receptor (NMDAR) antagonist, 2-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid despite the Ca(2+) requirement. Therefore there must be an alternative postsynaptic Ca(2+) source and coincidence detection mechanism linked to the LTP induction mechanism in the neonatal cortex operating in addition to NMDARs. In this study, we find that in layer 2/3 pyramidal neurons, release of Ca(2+) from inositol trisphosphate (InsP(3)) receptor-mediated intracellular stores and influx through voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels (VGCCs) provide alternative postsynaptic Ca(2+) sources. We hypothesize that InsP(3)Rs are coincidence detectors, sensing presynaptic glutamate release through linkage with group I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs), and depolarization, through VGCCs. We also find that the downstream protein kinases, PKA and PKC, have a role in potentiation in layer 2/3 pyramidal neurons of the neonatal visual cortex.     

Neural plasticity maintained high by activation of cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase: an age-independent, general mechanism in cat striate cortex

Adult cats lack ocular dominance plasticity, showing little change in the ocular dominance distribution following monocular deprivation. Ocular dominance plasticity is also lost in kitten visual cortex that has been continuously infused with either catecholaminergic neurotoxin, beta-adrenoreceptor blocker, or inhibitor of cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase (protein kinase A). Complementarily, in adult cats we showed earlier that pharmacological activation of protein kinase A, albeit partially, restored ocular dominance plasticity. In the present study, we first asked whether, mediated by protein kinase A activation, the same molecular mechanisms could restore ocular dominance plasticity to kitten cortex that once lost the expression of plasticity due to prior pharmacological treatments. Concurrently with monocular deprivation, two kinds of cyclic AMP-related drugs (cholera toxin A-subunit or dibutyryl cyclic AMP) were directly infused in two types of aplastic kitten cortex pretreated with either 6-hydroxydopamine or propranolol. The combined treatment resulted in clear ocular dominance shift to the non-deprived eye, indicating that cortical plasticity was fully restored to aplastic kitten cortex. Next, to directly prove the sensitivity difference in protein kinase A activation between the immature and mature cortex, we compared the thus-obtained data in kittens with the published data derived from adult cats under the comparable experimental paradigm. The extent of ocular dominance changes following monocular deprivation was compared at different drug concentrations in the two preparations: the shifted ocular dominance distribution in aplastic kitten cortex infused with dibutyryl cyclic AMP at the lowest concentration tested and the W-shaped distribution in similarly treated adult cortex at a thousandfold-higher drug concentration that induced nearly maximal changes. We conclude that, irrespective of the animal's age, activation of protein kinase A cascades is a general mechanism to maintain ocular dominance plasticity high, their sensitivity being substantially higher in the immature than mature cortex.     

Possible role of S-100 in glia—Neuronal signalling involved in activity-dependent plasticity in the developing mammalian cortex

Using Western blot analyses and a quantitative ELISA, we identified the presence and developmental accumulation of the astroglial S-100 protein(s) in rat and cat visual cortex. There is a steep rise in the S-100 content, comprising mainly S-100β, during the time period of highest cortical malleability in both species. A possible role of the astroglial S-100 protein(s) in experience-dependent plasticity of the visual cortex of kittens was tested by infusing antiserum against this protein during the critical period for cortical malleability. Following 1 week of monocular deprivation, the ocular dominance of single cells in the visual cortex was investigated. The vast majority of cells in the hemispheres infused with anti-S-100 serum maintained binocular responses. This finding suggests that extracellular S-100 protein is essential for ocular-dominance plasticity. Infusion of S-100β during the critical period of cortical malleability had no effect on deprivation-induced ocular-dominance plasticity, but interfered with the experience-dependent refinement of orientation selectivity of visual cortical neurons. It is suggested that S-100β may play an important role in the refinement of cortical circuitries by selectively affecting active or activated neuronal compartments. As S-100β is synthesized in astroglial cells, the effects on neuronal plasticity imply that glia-neuronal information transfer occurs during activity-dependent plasticity. Possible underlying mechanisms are discussed on the basis of current knowledge on the S-100 protein family, especially S-100β (Marshak, 1990).     

Immunocytochemical localization of calcineurin in the adult and developing primary visual cortex of cats

An immunocytochemical method was used to localize calcineurin, a calcium-dependent calmodulinstimulated protein phosphatase, in the primary visual cortex of developing and adult cats. In the adult calcineurin immunoreactivity exhibits a laminar distribution with dense labeling in the upper half of layers II/III and two lightly labeled bands in lower layer IV and in layer VI. Most of the immunoreactive neurons are pyramidal in shape and appear to form a subpopulation of cortical neurons, but non-pyramidal neurons were also labeled, especially during early stages of postnatal development. The distribution pattern of calcineurin immunoreactivity showed developmental changes until at least 3 months of age. The number of calcineurin-positive cells abruptly increased at 3 weeks, and heavily labeled neurons appeared in a well-delineated band in layer IV between 3 and 5 weeks of age. At 6 to 10 weeks, neurons in layers II/III also became strongly immunoreactive. At this developmental stage intensely stained cells were thus distributed throughout layers II to IV. Thereafter, there was a marked decrease in the number of immunoreactive cells in layer IV and beyond 12 weeks the distribution pattern of calcineurin immunoreactivity became similar to that of adult animals. These changes of calcineurin expression show some relation with the inside-out pattern of cortical maturation and with the time course and the laminar selectivity of use-dependent malleability. Therefore, we suggest that calcineurin may be involved in processes of neuronal differentiation and experience-dependent plasticity.     

间隙连接及其磷酸化调节

间隙连接细胞间通讯(gap junction intercellu lar commun ication,G JIC)是细胞对自身的代谢、增殖、分化等生理过程进行调节的一种重要途径。G JIC的基本组成单位间隙连接蛋白的磷酸化调节是影响G JIC功能的重要因素。蛋白激酶和蛋白磷酸酶通过使间隙连接蛋白磷酸化或脱磷酸化来调节G JIC功能。间隙连接蛋白的适度磷酸化促进G JIC功能的发挥,脱磷酸化或过磷酸化都可抑制G JIC功能,进而影响细胞的正常生理功能。     

cAMP反应元件结合蛋白(CREB)在正常发育大鼠视皮层的表达研究

正常视觉信息输入对初期视皮层的发育和修饰至关重要。视觉发育的特点是存在一个关键期 ,在此期内控制信息输入将导致皮质联系的显著变化。转录因子 -c AMP反应元件结合蛋白 ( CREB)在多种有机体的信号传导通路中的枢纽作用和其参与长时程突触可塑性的生理活动提示 ,它可能参与了在视皮层发育中发挥重要作用的分子机制。本研究应用免疫组织化学方法和 Western blot技术 ,对 P14、P2 2、P3 0、P45和 P90年龄组 Sprague-Dawley大鼠视皮层内 CREB的免疫反应性进行观察和分析。结果证明 ,CREB在视皮层各层内的蛋白表达时程与视觉发育的关键期一致 ,其免疫反应性在 P2 2至 P45期间达到高水平 ,成年后的蛋白表达出现下调。结论 :视觉可塑性降低的同时存在 CREB表达的显著改变 ,但该蛋白表达改变与突触传递和可塑性的关系尚待阐明     

Different mechanisms account for extracellular-signal regulated kinase activation in distinct brain regions following global ischemia and reperfusion

Oxidative stress after cerebral ischemia and reperfusion activates extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK) in brain. However, the mechanism of this activation has not been elucidated. We have previously reported that in an in vitro model of oxidative stress in immature cortical neuronal cultures, the inhibition of ERK phosphatase activity contributes to ERK1/2 activation and subsequent neuronal toxicity. This study examined whether ERK activation was associated with altered activity of ERK phosphatases in a rat cardiac arrest model. Rats in experimental groups were subjected to asphyxial cardiac arrest for 8 min and then resuscitated for 30 min. Significant ERK activation was detected in both cortex and hippocampus following ischemia/reperfusion by immunoblotting. ERK phosphatase activity was reversibly inhibited in cerebral cortex but not affected in hippocampus following ischemia/reperfusion. MEK1/2 was activated in both cerebral cortex and hippocampus following ischemia/reperfusion. Using a specific inhibitor of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A), okadaic acid (OA), we have identified PP2A to be the major ERK phosphatase that is responsible for regulating ERK activation in ischemic brain tissues. Orthovanadate inhibited ERK phosphatase activity in brain tissues, suggesting that tyrosine phosphatases and dual specificity phosphatases may also contribute to the ERK phosphatase activity in brain tissues. Together, these data implicate ERK phosphatase in the regulation of ERK activation in distinct brain regions following global ischemia.     

Development of human visual cortex: a balance between excitatory and inhibitory plasticity mechanisms

Formation of neural circuitry in the developing visual cortex is shaped by experience during the critical period. A number of mechanisms, including N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor activation and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-mediated inhibition, are crucial in determining onset and closure of the critical period for visual plasticity. Animal models have shown that a threshold level of tonic inhibition must be reached for critical period plasticity to occur and that NMDA receptors contribute to Hebbian synaptic plasticity in the developing visual cortex. There are a number of developmental changes in these glutamatergic and GABAergic mechanisms that have been linked to plasticity; however, those changes have been shown only in animal models, and their development in the human visual cortex is not known. We have addressed this question by studying the expression of the major glutamatergic receptors, GABA(A) receptors, and glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) isoforms during the first 6 years of postnatal development of human visual cortex. There are significant changes in the expression of these proteins during postnatal development of human visual cortex. The time course of the changes is quite prolonged and suggests that it may set the pace for the prolonged critical period in human visual development. The changes also affect the nature of spatial and temporal integration in visual cortical neurons and thereby contribute to the maturation of visual functions.     

Myristoyltransferase and calcineurin: novel molecular therapeutic target for epilepsy

N-myristoylation is a co-translational, irreversible addition of a fatty acyl moiety to the amino terminus of many eukaryotic cellular proteins. These myristoylated proteins in the cell have diverse biological functions such as signal transduction, cellular transformation and oncogensis. Known myristoylated proteins [Src family kinases, the catalytic subunit of cAMP-dependent protein kinase and calcineurin (CaN)] are either protein kinases or a protein phosphatases which modulate various cellular metabolic processes. Myristoylation is catalyzed by N-myristoyltransferase (NMT) and is recognized to be a widespread and functionally important modification of proteins. The main objective of this review is to focus on the potential role of NMT and CaN in epileptic brain and its involvement in neuronal apoptosis. The findings on the interaction of NMT and CaN with various signaling molecules in epileptic chickens adds to our understanding of the mechanism of CaN signaling in neuronal apoptosis. Understanding the regulation of NMT by specific inhibitors may help us to control the action of this enzyme on its specific substrates and may lead to improvements in the management of various neurological disorders like Alzheimer's disease, ischemia and epilepsy.     

细胞外信号调节激酶系统 (ERKs)在正常发育大鼠视皮层基因表达的研究

细胞外信号调节蛋白激酶 (ERKs)是皮层神经元生长、发育和分化的关键因子。本研究目的在于研究 ERKs(ERK1、ERK2和 ERK3 ) m RNA在视皮层各层的分布、表达量以及发育过程变化。实验用健康雄性 SD大鼠 ,于生后 (P) 14、2 1、2 8、45和 90 d(成年 )灌注固定 ,取全脑 ,切取视皮层。用 4%多聚甲醛固定 ,石蜡包埋 ,4μm厚切片。地高辛标记特异性寡核苷酸探针 (ERK1、ERK2 )和 c DNA探针 (ERK3 )。用原位杂交方法检测三种 ERKs亚型的 m RNA在各年龄组大鼠视皮层的表达。结果证明 :ERKs m RNA在出生后大鼠正常发育视皮层的表达 ,ERK1和 ERK2 m RNA的分布具有明显的层的特异性 ,表达于除 I层 (分子层 )之外的 II-VI层 ,ERK2较 ERK1m RNA的表达更广泛、信号密度更强。ERK1和 ERK2 m RNA的转录在发育敏感期增高 ,从 P2 1～P2 8逐渐增加 ,P45时达到高峰 ,到成年时降低为相当于 P2 1的水平。 ERK3 m RNA在大鼠出生后视皮层的信号表达强 ,比较恒定 ,无明显的层分布特异性。本研究结果提示 ,出生后正常大鼠发育期视皮层 ERK1和 ERK2的 m RNA表达呈上调趋势 ,而 ERK3 m RNA在大鼠出生后视皮层的表达量中等 ,比较恒定 ,缺乏发育性变化特点。表明 ERK1和 ERK2可能是参与出生后在视觉环境刺激下视皮层发育可塑性调节的重要     

The action of neurotrophins in the development and plasticity of the visual cortex

Nerve growth factor (NGF) and the other members of the the NGF gene family have been extensively characterized as neurotrophic factors. Recently a modulatory action of these neurotrophic factors on synapse efficacy has emerged. The developing visual system has provided a convenient model to test the role of neurotrophins on neural plasticity in vivo.NGF does not interfere with the development of the visual cortex but has an effect only when the visual system is confronted with abnormal vision. All the effects of manipulations of the visual experience such as monocular deprivation, strabismus and dark rearing are prevented if NGF is provided exogenously. NGF can antagonize the destabilization of cortical connections induced by manipulations of the visual input during early postnatal development. Anti-NGF has complementary effects, delaying the stabilization of visual cortical synapses.The mechanism of NGF action remains unclear. The cells expressing NGF receptors in the visual system are yet to be identified, but some lines of evidence suggest that NGF exerts a direct action on cortical neurons.The distribution of BDNF and its receptor trkB in the visual system is known in much greater detail, BDNF production is regulated by visual input and BDNF responsive cells are present along the entire visual pathway. Yet, the effects of BDNF on the visual cortex are difficult to interpret. BDNF interferes with the development of the visual cortex and induces a paradoxical plasticity in monocularly deprived kittens. The effects of exogenous administration of BDNF on the visual cortex are dramatic, but the action of BDNF under physiological conditions is still unclear.     

Alterations in AMPA receptor phosphorylation in the rat striatum following acute and repeated cocaine administration

Protein phosphorylation is an important mechanism for the posttranslational modulation of ionotropic glutamate receptors and is subject to regulation by changing synaptic inputs. In this study, we investigated the regulation of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionic acid (AMPA) receptor GluR1 subunit phosphorylation by cocaine exposure in the rat dorsal striatum in vivo. We found that acute cocaine challenge followed by 6 days of repeated systemic injections of cocaine (20 mg/kg once daily) enhanced the sensitivity of the GluR1 subunit in its phosphorylation at serine 831 (Ser831) in the dorsal striatum. This enhancement of the sensitivity of Ser831 phosphorylation was reduced, at the receptor and ion channel level, by blocking (1) group I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs), (2) N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors, and (3) L-type voltage-operated Ca²⁺ channels. Similar reduction of the enhancement was also induced, at the protein kinase level, by inhibiting (1) protein kinase C, (2) calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinases, and (3) c-Jun N-terminal kinases. In addition, inhibition of protein phosphatase 1/2A or calcineurin increased GluR1-Ser831 phosphorylation in the dorsal striatum of normal rats, whereas inhibition of these phosphatases did not further enhance the Ser831 phosphorylation in rats pretreated with 7 daily injections of cocaine. These data suggest that the phosphorylation of AMPA receptor GluR1 subunits at Ser831 is subject to upregulation by acute and repeated cocaine administration. Complex signaling integrations among glutamate receptors, Ca²⁺ channels, protein kinases, and protein phosphatases participate in this upregulation.