A close examination of trait reactance and issue involvement as moderators of psychological reactance theory

This study used psychological reactance theory (PRT) to investigate (a) the effectiveness of 2 message features (freedom-threatening language and character frame) and (b) the role of trait reactance and issue involvement as moderators of a perceived freedom threat. Within the context of organ donation, the results indicated no differences for character frame among the donor, recipient, or waiting list narratives. However, freedom-threatening language was positively associated with a perceived freedom threat. In turn, a perceived freedom threat was positively associated with state reactance, which was inversely, albeit nonsignificantly, associated with organ donation attitudes. Attitudes predicted intentions to be an organ donor. Results also revealed that trait reactance was positively associated with a perceived freedom threat. Although not associated with a freedom threat, issue involvement was positively associated with organ donation attitudes and intent to be a donor. Additionally, a trait reactance by issue involvement by freedom-threatening language interaction predicted a perceived freedom threat. Results are discussed with an emphasis on these moderators in PRT.     

Anger Expression Moderates the Effects of Psychological Reactance to Sexual Health Messages

This study examined how anger expression tendencies moderate the negative consequences of state reactance. An experiment was conducted whereby participants (N = 226) read a health public service announcement (PSA) that encouraged conversations about sexual health history prior to sexual encounters with new partners and that varied in freedom-threatening language. As hypothesized, the freedom-threatening appeal increased perceived threat to freedom and subsequent reactance. However, the negative relationship between reactance and attitude was mitigated for people who were lower in dispositional anger expression. The results showed that the extent to which state reactance resulted in unhealthy outcomes depended on the degree to which people tend to communicate anger. These findings are discussed in terms of theoretical implications for reactance scholars and practical utility for health message designers.     

Examining the Use of Forceful Language When Designing Exercise Persuasive Messages for Adults: A Test of Conceptualizing Reactance Arousal as a Two-Step Process

This investigation tests a conceptualization of reactance as a two-step process. This conceptualization was recently tested with college students, but research testing this conceptualization among primarily adult samples does not currently exist. Psychological reactance theory (PRT) states that individuals exposed to a threat or elimination of a freedom will experience reactance and subsequently be motivated to restore the freedom. Specifically, it is hypothesized that individuals will perceive persuasive messages containing forceful language as a threat to their personal freedom, which will be followed by reactance, manifested in a latent variable composed of anger and negative cognitions. This hypothesis was tested within the context of persuasive messages aimed at encouraging members (N = 247) to participate in weight lifting or group exercise programs at a health and fitness center. Results support conceptualizing reactance as a 2-step process. In addition, results indicate that a primarily adult sample responds unfavorably to forceful persuasive messages advocating the aforementioned exercise activities. In finding support for conceptualizing reactance as a two-step process, we encourage health campaigners and PRT researchers to employ this measure to provide consistency to future PRT studies.     

More on Inoculating Against Reactance to Persuasive Health Messages: The Paradox of Threat

This research examined the efficacy of inoculation as a strategy to mitigate psychological reactance based on the level of threat communicated in the forewarning and subsequent persuasive health appeal. Two 2 (inoculation) × 2 (freedom-threatening language) experiments were conducted. The first (N = 181) used elaborated inoculation designed to enhance the threat of impending reactance to a message advocating for responsible alcohol consumption. The second (N = 159) used limited inoculation designed to minimize the threat of impending reactance to a message advocating for responsible soft drink consumption. Results showed that elaborated inoculation increased reactance, whereas limited inoculation decreased reactance but only when the subsequent appeal used less freedom-threatening language. These findings suggest that inoculation has the potential to facilitate or buffer reactance depending on the level of threat communicated in inoculation forewarnings and in subsequent persuasive health appeals.     

The Indirect Effect of Source Information on Psychological Reactance Against Antismoking Messages Through Perceived Bias

This study investigates the indirect effect of source information on attitudes toward antismoking campaigns through perceived bias and psychological reactance by employing a survey experiment (N = 416). Findings demonstrate that an editorial advocating antismoking campaigns from ideologically congruent media is perceived as less biased than the same editorial from hostile media. The perceived bias is linked to perceived threat to freedom, which, in turn, is linked to psychological reactance against the editorial, resulting in less favorable attitudes toward antismoking campaigns. Smokers are more likely to show the linkages than nonsmokers. Implications of the findings are discussed.     

Examining the use of forceful language when designing exercise persuasive messages for adults: a test of conceptualizing reactance arousal as a two-step process

This investigation tests a conceptualization of reactance as a two-step process. This conceptualization was recently tested with college students, but research testing this conceptualization among primarily adult samples does not currently exist. Psychological reactance theory (PRT) states that individuals exposed to a threat or elimination of a freedom will experience reactance and subsequently be motivated to restore the freedom. Specifically, it is hypothesized that individuals will perceive persuasive messages containing forceful language as a threat to their personal freedom, which will be followed by reactance, manifested in a latent variable composed of anger and negative cognitions. This hypothesis was tested within the context of persuasive messages aimed at encouraging members (N = 247) to participate in weight lifting or group exercise programs at a health and fitness center. Results support conceptualizing reactance as a 2-step process. In addition, results indicate that a primarily adult sample responds unfavorably to forceful persuasive messages advocating the aforementioned exercise activities. In finding support for conceptualizing reactance as a two-step process, we encourage health campaigners and PRT researchers to employ this measure to provide consistency to future PRT studies.     

Family Communication Patterns Moderate the Relationship Between Psychological Reactance and Willingness to Talk About Organ Donation

Considerable research has investigated how psychological reactance affects individuals' responses to health promotion messages, but little is known about how family processes might moderate the reactance process. In this study, 301 participants were exposed to a persuasive message about organ donation. The moderating role of family communication patterns in the reactance process was tested using hierarchical regression. We found that family conversation orientation had a direct effect on willingness to talk with family members about being an organ donor and that family conformity orientation and family conversation orientation each interacted with reactance to predict willingness to communicate with family about donation. Theoretically, these results extend psychological reactance theory by considering how interpersonal factors affect the reactance process. Practically, the findings suggest that for optimal impact, family processes should be considered in the design of messages promoting organ donation.     

Examining Mechanisms Underlying Fear-Control in the Extended Parallel Process Model

This investigation sought to advance the extended parallel process model in important ways by testing associations among the strengths of efficacy and threat appeals with fear as well as two outcomes of fear-control processing, psychological reactance and message minimization. Within the context of print ads admonishing against noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) and the fictitious Trepidosis virus, partial support was found for the additive model with no support for the multiplicative model. High efficacy appeals mitigated freedom threat perceptions across both contexts. Fear was positively associated with both freedom threat perceptions within the NIHL context and favorable attitudes for both NIHL and Trepidosis virus contexts. In line with psychological reactance theory, a freedom threat was positively associated with psychological reactance. Reactance, in turn, was positively associated with message minimization. The models supported reactance preceding message minimization across both message contexts. Both the theoretical and practical implications are discussed with an emphasis on future research opportunities within the fear-appeal literature.     

Antecedents to Psychological Reactance: The Impact of Threat,Message Frame,and Choice

A 2 (Threat: high vs. low) × 2 (Frame: gain vs. loss) × 2 (Choice: yes vs. no) × 2 (Behavior: prevention vs. detection) factorial design Web-based experiment (N = 814) was conducted to investigate the impact of threat to freedom, message frame, and behavioral choice as antecedents to psychological reactance. The intertwined model for reactance measure was replicated. Results showed that threat to freedom and the loss frame increased, and the gain frame and choice mitigated psychological reactance. The advantages of choice and the gain frame were most salient when threat was high.     

Inoculating Against Reactance to Persuasive Health Messages

This investigation examined the possibility of decreasing psychological reactance to health campaigns through the use of inoculation messages. It was hypothesized that an inoculation message, which forewarned of the potential of subsequent reactance, would decrease participants’ likelihood of reacting negatively to a freedom-threatening message aimed to reduce excessive alcohol consumption. Participants (N = 275) who were inoculated against potential reactance felt less threatened and experienced less reactance compared to those who did not read an inoculation message. Structural equation modeling showed that inoculation indirectly predicted lower intention to drink alcohol via the theorized mediated reactance process. This research suggests that it is possible to inoculate against self-generated cognitions that might otherwise lead toward negative health behaviors.     

The role of anticipated guilt in intentions to register as organ donors and to discuss organ donation with family

This project extends previous cognition-based organ donation research by addressing the role of anticipated guilt in individuals' intentions to register as donors and to discuss organ donation with family under the theoretical framework of the integrative model of behavioral prediction. Structural equation modeling analysis revealed that after controlling for the influence of attitudes, norms, and self-efficacy, anticipated guilt positively predicted intentions and was a stronger predictor of intentions in the donor registration model than in the family discussion model. Anticipated guilt was in turn predicted by empathic concern and norms in the donor registration model and by empathic concern, attitudes, and norms in the family discussion model. Both theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

State Psychological Reactance to Depression Public Service Announcements Among People With Varying Levels of Depressive Symptomatology

Campaigns seeking to help people with depression can be effective, but they can also backfire. Psychological reactance is proposed as a partial explanation. Two experimental studies examined the effect of two depression messages (i.e., autonomy-supportive language, controlling language) for participants (n = 2027, n = 777) with varying levels of depressive symptomatology. For Study 1, two versions of a print public service announcement about seeking help for depression served as the experimental stimulus. Study 2 used an existing video public service announcement about seeking help for depression, but the text was altered to create the two conditions. In both studies, increased depressive symptomatology was associated with reduced help-seeking attitudes and intentions, as well as greater state reactance to a public service announcement about depression. Increased state reactance mediated the relationship between increased depressive symptomology and unfavorable help-seeking outcomes. Further, across the two studies, participants with high levels of depressive symptomatology who were exposed to the autonomy-supportive language ad reported either as much, or more, state reactance than participants with high levels of depressive symptomatology who were in the control condition. These results warn that language perceived as autonomy-supportive by people without depression might be perceived as controlling among people with depression.     

Toward More Persuasive Diabetes Messages: Effects of Personal Value Orientation and Freedom Threat on Psychological Reactance and Behavioral Intention

This study seeks to explore more effective ways of creating tailored health messages in order to help self-management of diabetes symptoms. Personal value orientation and freedom threat as antecedents of psychological reactance are investigated as potential elements reflecting to tailored health messages and leading to more or less persuasive effects on self-management. Using these elements, the current study examines whether invoking an individual’s personal value orientation (i.e., two extreme value orientations: self-enhancement and self-transcendence) and threatening an individual’s freedom in health news messages about diabetes influence psychological reactance and affect suggested health behaviors. Based on the literature regarding tailored message strategies, value theory, and psychological reactance theory, a 2 (personal value orientation: self-enhancement value vs. self-transcendence value) x 2 (value-invoking message: invoked vs. non-invoked) x 2 (freedom threat: high vs. low) between-subjects factorial design experiment with within-subjects topics on diabetes (2: nutrition and physical activity) was conducted for prediabetes/diabetes adults. The findings are (1) direct effects of personal value orientation on psychological reactance, (2) direct effects of freedom threat on psychological reactance, and (3) the interaction effects of value orientation and freedom threat on psychological reactance and behavioral intention. Implications are discussed.     

Influences of Self-Efficacy,Response Efficacy,and Reactance on Responses to Cigarette Health Warnings: A Longitudinal Study of Adult Smokers in Australia and Canada

Guided by the extended parallel process model (EPPM) and reactance theory, this study examined the relationship between efficacy beliefs, reactance, and adult smokers’ responses to pictorial health warning labels (HWL) on cigarette packaging, including whether efficacy beliefs or reactance modify the relationship between HWL responses and subsequent smoking cessation behavior. Four waves of data were analyzed from prospective cohorts of smokers in Australia and Canada (n = 7,120 observations) over a period of time after implementation of more prominent, pictorial HWLs. Three types of HWL responses were studied: psychological threat responses (i.e., thinking about risks from smoking), forgoing cigarettes due to HWLs, and avoiding HWLs. The results from Generalized Estimating Equation models indicated that stronger efficacy beliefs and lower trait reactance were significantly associated with greater psychological threat responses to HWLs. Similar results were found for models predicting forgoing behavior, although response efficacy was inversely associated with it. Only response efficacy was significantly associated with avoiding HWLs, showing a positive relationship. Higher self-efficacy and stronger responses to HWLs, no matter the type, were associated with attempting to quit in the follow-up period; reactance was unassociated. No statistically significant interactions were found. These results suggest that stronger efficacy beliefs and lower trait reactance are associated with some stronger responses to fear-arousing HWL responses; however, these HWL responses appear no less likely to lead to cessation attempts among smokers with different levels of self-efficacy to quit, of response efficacy beliefs, or of trait reactance against attempts to control their behavior.     

Anti-Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Messages Elicit Reactance: Effects on Attitudes and Policy Preferences

Messages that convey the dangers associated with consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) may be the most effective means of changing attitudes toward consumption and policy preferences. However, there is a risk that this message type also stimulates reactance, a form of resistance to persuasion. A study (N = 618) using messages from the 2012 New York City anti-SSB campaign and a sample of New York City residents showed just such effects. Reactance was heightened by prior message exposure, conservative political orientation and prior consumption of SSBs. The net message effect was still persuasive overall for attitudes, but could be improved by 17% if reactance were eliminated. In contrast, the net message effect on policy preferences was counterpersuasive, due to processes other than reactance. Anti-SSB threat appeals can change attitudes toward one’s own behavior in a more healthful direction, while simultaneously eroding support for more restrictive SSB policies.     

Family communication patterns moderate the relationship between psychological reactance and willingness to talk about organ donation

Considerable research has investigated how psychological reactance affects individuals' responses to health promotion messages, but little is known about how family processes might moderate the reactance process. In this study, 301 participants were exposed to a persuasive message about organ donation. The moderating role of family communication patterns in the reactance process was tested using hierarchical regression. We found that family conversation orientation had a direct effect on willingness to talk with family members about being an organ donor and that family conformity orientation and family conversation orientation each interacted with reactance to predict willingness to communicate with family about donation. Theoretically, these results extend psychological reactance theory by considering how interpersonal factors affect the reactance process. Practically, the findings suggest that for optimal impact, family processes should be considered in the design of messages promoting organ donation.     

Ethnic Differences in Intention to Enroll in a State Organ Donor Registry and Intention to Talk With Family About Organ Donation

This study compared African Americans, Asian Americans, Hispanic Americans, Native Americans, and White Americans on their intentions to enroll in a state organ donor registry and to talk with family about organ donation. The overall results showed that attitudes and subjective norms from the theory of planned behavior were significantly related to intention to enroll whereas perceived behavioral control was not. Attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control were significantly related to intention to talk with family. The differences among ethnic groups were small, but the relationship between attitudes and intention to enroll was stronger for Asian Americans and weaker for African Americans than for White Americans. The implications of these and other findings are discussed for organ donation campaigns.     

Locating Relationship and Communication Issues Among Stressors Associated With Breast Cancer

This investigation examined antecedents associated with support for clean indoor air policies. Participants (N = 550) living in a Midwestern county (population = 62,223) were randomly sampled. Results suggest that beliefs in the health risks associated with secondhand smoke are positively associated with favorable attitudes toward clean indoor air policies, whereas trait reactance is negatively associated with these attitudes. Findings also indicate that risks and trait reactance are indirectly associated with support for clean indoor air policies, mediated through anger arousal toward exposure to secondhand smoke. In addition, regression analyses revealed that health risks, trait reactance, and smoking status explained a significant amount of variance regarding anger toward exposure to secondhand smoke, but only health risks and smoking status accounted for a significant amount of variance toward clean indoor air attitudes. Finally, the Smoking Status × Health Risks interaction was supported for anger toward exposure to secondhand smoke and favorable attitudes toward clean indoor air policies. Our findings suggest the incorporation of anger appeals when promoting clean indoor air policies.     

The Impact of Locus of Control and Controlling Language on Psychological Reactance and Ad Effectiveness in Health Communication

Based on two theoretical models—psychological reactance theory (PRT) and locus of control—this study examines the individual and joint effects of locus of control and controlling language on young adults’ information processing. Two experimental studies on anti-driving-after-drinking (anti-DAD) and antismoking public service announcements (PSAs) were conducted that were conceptual replications of each other. Both studies afforded evidence that those with external locus of control were more involved in risky behaviors. There was a consistent interaction between locus of control and controlling language, such that those with internal locus of control were more sensitive to this message feature compared to those with external locus of control. Controlling language was found to increase reactance. The theoretical and managerial implications for health communication are elaborated. Limitations and directions for future research are also outlined.