Alcohol and malt liquor availability and promotion and homicide in inner cities

We investigated the role of the alcohol environment in explaining disparities in homicide rates among minorities in 10 cities in the United States using 2003 data from the Malt Liquor and Homicide study. We hypothesized that (a) higher concentrations of African Americans would be associated with higher homicide rates, as well as higher alcohol and malt liquor availability and promotion, and (b) the relationship between neighborhood racial/ethnic concentration and homicide would be attenuated by the greater alcohol and malt liquor availability and promotion in African American neighborhoods. Hypotheses were tested using separate Poisson, linear, and logistic regression models that corrected for spatial autocorrelation. Census block groups served as the unit of analysis (n = 450). We found that higher concentrations of African Americans were associated with higher homicide rates as well as greater alcohol availability, especially malt liquor availability. The promotion of malt liquor on storefronts was also significantly greater in African American than in other neighborhoods. However, none of the measures representing alcohol or malt liquor availability and promotion variables changed the effect of neighborhood racial/ethnic concentration on homicide. Limitations and implications of our findings are discussed.     

Malt liquor marketing in inner cities: the role of neighborhood racial composition

In response to anecdotal reports that African American neighborhoods are targeted for high-alcohol malt liquor advertising, the authors observed alcohol ads on off-premise alcohol outlets, billboards, and transit structures in 10 U.S. cities over 3 years. Malt liquor ads were prevalent on storefronts, but rare on billboards. Using Poisson regression, the authors found that storefront malt liquor ads were more common in neighborhoods with higher percentages of African Americans, even after controlling for social and physical disorder. Results suggest that policymakers attempting to reduce malt liquor-related harms may do well to consider regulations that limit storefront advertising exposure.     

Alcohol availability and targeted advertising in racial/ethnic minority communities

Alcohol availability and advertising are disproportionately concentrated in racial/ethnic minority communities. Although research on alcohol availability and alcohol advertising in racial/ethnic minority communities is limited, evidence does show a relationship between minority concentration, alcohol outlet density, and alcohol problems. This article reviews research showing that certain neighborhood characteristics, such as alcohol outlet density, can be stronger predictors of homicide and violence than are race or ethnicity.     

Elderly Drug Use and Racial/Ethnic Populations

Abstract

Substance use and misuse among racial/ethnic subgroups remains a much understudied area. This article summarizes recent data from national surveys (SAMHSA) recording prevalence and treatment rates for major ethnic/racial subgroups. The authors point to a concern about the higher prevalence and treatment rates of alcohol among older American Indians and Alaskan Natives, but warn that more precise estimates must be obtained. They also address the finding that older African Americans have higher prevalence and rates of treatment admissions for certain illicit drugs such as cocaine. They highlight the unique concerns for older African Americans as the largest minority group within the U. S. Finally, a research agenda for the twenty-first century is suggested which will stress emphasis on continued, careful analysis of the life course of substance use among racial/ethnic subgroups.     

Protective strategies and alcohol use among college students: ethnic and gender differences

This study investigated differences in alcohol consumption and the use of protective strategies (i.e., eating and designated drivers) between European American, African American, and Hispanic American college students. Gender differences were also examined. The study sample was drawn from a large southeastern university (n?=?567). Data analysis employed regression, factor analysis, and analysis of variance. Results indicate that European Americans students reported a higher incidence of "drunk" episodes per week than other racial/ethnic groups and greater use of specific pre-drinking behaviors such as protective strategies than their non-European American peers. No statistically significant differences were found between the drinking patterns between genders.     

Perceived racial discrimination,heavy episodic drinking,and alcohol abstinence among African American and White college students

Previous research has demonstrated that White college students are more likely to drink alcohol at a greater frequency and quantity compared to their African American counterparts. Examining race-related factors that structure alcohol use among college students remains an important area of research. In this study, we specifically examine perceived discrimination and its association with both heavy episodic drinking (HED) and alcohol abstinence among college students. Items that measured perceived racial discrimination in alcohol use contexts and demographic characteristics were used as independent and control variables. African American students were more likely to abstain from alcohol and less likely to engage in HED compared to their White counterparts. Results also suggest that students who believe their drinking will solicit race-based police bias have lower odds of engaging in HED and greater odds of alcohol abstention. We conclude that unsolicited policing, experienced by African Americans generally, and White Americans on campuses, explains effect sizes.     

Neighborhood characteristics contribute to urban alcohol availability: Accounting for race/ethnicity and social disorganization

This study examined the role that race/ethnicity and social disorganization play in alcohol availability in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, census block groups. This study estimated negative binomial regression models to examine separately the relationship between neighborhood racial/ethnic composition and social disorganization levels for (1) total, (2) on-premise, and (3) off-premise alcohol outlets. Results of this study suggest that proportion Hispanic was positively associated with total and with off-premise alcohol outlets. Second, proportion African American was negatively associated with on-premise alcohol outlets and positively associated with off-premise alcohol outlets. Proportion Asian was not associated with total, on-premise, or off-premise alcohol outlets. However, the effects of race/ethnicity on alcohol availability were either unrelated or negatively related to alcohol outlet availability once neighborhood social disorganization levels were taken into account, and social disorganization was positively and significantly associated with all alcohol outlet types. Neighborhood characteristics contribute to alcohol availability and must be considered in any efforts aimed toward prevention of alcohol-related negative health and social outcomes.     

A comparison of African American and non-Hispanic Caucasian cocaine-abusing outpatients

An understanding of how different racial and ethnic groups vary with respect to demographic characteristics and severity of psychosocial problems is necessary to better address the treatment needs of these subgroups. This study evaluated similarities and differences between African American and non-Hispanic Caucasian cocaine users initiating substance abuse treatment at community-based programs. At intake to treatment, patients completed the addiction severity index (ASI). African Americans (n=161) and Caucasians (n=86) differed with respect to gender, income and age. After controlling these demographic variables and treatment site, race-related differences were noted in many of the ASI composite scores. While African Americans had more severe employment problems, they had less severe alcohol, legal, family/social and psychiatric difficulties than Caucasians. These differences suggest that African Americans and Caucasians may benefit from treatment emphasizing different aspects of their psychosocial problems. Specifically, for many African American patients, employment-training programs may be particularly useful. Caucasians may be in greater need of treatment that focuses on concurrent cocaine and alcohol problems, as well as family and psychiatric difficulties.     

Race,Coping Style,and Substance Use Disorder Among Non-Hispanic African American and White Young Adults in South Florida

Background: Despite their higher rates of stress, African American young adults tend toward similar or lower rates of substance misuse than their White counterparts. Arguably, such patterns derive from: (1) racial variations in the availability of coping strategies that mitigate stress; and/or (2) racial differences in the efficacy of available coping styles for reducing substance misuse. Objectives: We assessed whether two coping style types—problem-focused and avoidance-oriented—varied by race (non-Hispanic African American vs. non-Hispanic White) and whether the effects of coping styles on substance misuse were moderated by race. Methods: Using data from a community sample of South Florida young adults, we employed logistic regression analyses to examine racial differences in coping style and to test if race by coping style interactions (race × problem-focused coping and race × avoidance-oriented coping) influenced the odds of qualifying for a DSM-IV substance use disorder, net of lifetime stressful events and sociodemographic controls. Results: We found that African American young adults displayed lower problem-focused coping, and higher avoidance-oriented coping, than did White young adults. Among both African American and White respondents, problem-focused coping was associated with reduced odds of illicit drug use disorder (excluding marijuana), and among Whites, avoidance-oriented coping was associated with increased odds of an aggregate measure of alcohol, marijuana, and other illicit drug use disorders. Among African Americans, however, avoidance-oriented coping was associated with lower odds of marijuana use disorder. Conclusion: Substance misuse policies and practices that consider the sociocultural contexts of stress and coping are recommended.     

Effects of communities, neighborhoods and stores on retail pricing and promotion of beer

OBJECTIVE: This study examines how communities, neighborhoods and stores influence retail pricing and promotion of beer. METHOD: In the year 2000, trained field staff conducted observations in 2,024 retail alcohol stores in 160 communities throughout the contiguous United States. Based on a nationally representative sample of schools, we selected communities defined by the school's catchment area, or the vicinity from which the majority of students are drawn. We randomly selected off-sale alcohol retail establishments from a complete list of stores likely to sell tobacco or alcohol in the selected communities. Beer price and promotions are based on observations of Miller and Budweiser beer brands in the stores. Neighborhoods are defined by the store's census block. We used cross-sectional, hierarchical regression models and mixed methods procedures to analyze data. RESULTS: Community, neighborhood and store characteristics were related to beer price; however, only community and store characteristics were predictive of beer promotions. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, the pricing and promotion of beer vary systematically by some characteristics of communities, neighborhoods and stores, but not significantly by the number of young people populating a neighborhood. In addition, pricing and promotion of Budweiser and Miller beers, in particular, do not appear to target racial minority populations. Because of the significant effect of store characteristics, public health agencies and advocates might focus prevention efforts on collaborations with liquor control agencies to reduce variations in pricing and promotion of beer, which ultimately encourage risky drinking behaviors. Further studies are needed to examine the effects of pricing and promotion on alcohol-related social problems.     

Purple drank prevalence and characteristics of misusers of codeine cough syrup mixtures

A mixture of codeine cough syrup with alcohol and/or a soft drink known as “purple drank” has gained media attention in recent years as a drug associated with professional athletes and southern rap music. The existing research on purple drank consumption has primarily utilized samples of African Americans residing in the Houston, Texas area. This is the first scholarly study of purple drank use outside of the Houston, Texas area among a general population of young adults, and indicates that purple drank use is not limited to African American males. The findings depict higher odds of the use of purple drank among other racial and ethnic groups, males, and homosexual, bisexual, and transgender college students from urban areas.     

Effects of policies to restrict malt liquor sales on neighborhood crime

We examined the effectiveness of malt liquor sales restrictions adopted in 2005 in three liquor stores in a large Midwestern U.S. city. We hypothesized that the restrictions would be associated with crime reductions in adjacent neighborhoods. Using Poisson regression modeling, we compared crime rates two years prior to, and two years following policy adoption. Findings were mixed; malt liquor restrictions were associated with reductions in disorderly conduct citations, but increases in larceny/theft, beyond citywide trends. Limitations and implications of our study are discussed, and further research suggested. The study was funded by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.     

Substance Abuse and Dependence Among Low Income African Americans: Using Data from the National Survey on Drug Use & Health to Demystify Assumptions

ABSTRACT

The media has portrayed African Americans as drug users and criminals. The purpose of this study is to test the assumption that low-income African Americans use more alcohol, nicotine, marijuana, and illicit drugs than other racial groups using data from the 2005 National Survey on Drug Use and Health to compare drug abuse and dependence across low income racial groups (N = 20,172). Most respondents were white, female, and older than 26 years of age. The majority completed high school and reported annual family incomes between $10,000 and $19,000. Few participants reported receiving public assistance. Drug abuse and dependence rates varied across drug type and across race. Drug dependence and abuse were measured using the Nicotine Dependence Syndrome Scale and criteria from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Hierarchical regression was conducted to examine the level of association between racial background and drug abuse and dependence after controlling for age and gender. Results reveal that the assumption of high drug and alcohol use and abuse rates among low-income African Americans should be, at best, reexamined. This study has significant implications for both policy and social work practice because it breaks down normalized and biased assumptions of low-income African American drug use.     

Effects of Policies to Restrict Malt Liquor Sales on Neighborhood Crime

We examined the effectiveness of malt liquor sales restrictions adopted in 2005 in three liquor stores in a large Midwestern U.S. city. We hypothesized that the restrictions would be associated with crime reductions in adjacent neighborhoods. Using Poisson regression modeling, we compared crime rates two years prior to, and two years following policy adoption. Findings were mixed; malt liquor restrictions were associated with reductions in disorderly conduct citations, but increases in larceny/theft, beyond citywide trends. Limitations and implications of our study are discussed, and further research suggested. The study was funded by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.     

Racial differences in the link between alcohol expectancies and adolescent drinking

IntroductionAlcohol expectancies are important determinants and predictors of adolescent alcohol use. Research with African Americans has shown that the endorsement of positive alcohol expectancies differs from that of Whites during childhood and predicts different alcohol outcomes during young adulthood. However, limited research has explored racial differences in the relationship between expectancy endorsement and alcohol use in school-aged adolescents. The current study examines the effect of White or African American race on the relationship between positive alcohol expectancies and alcohol use.MethodsParticipants were 104 adolescents ages 12–18 who identified as either non-Hispanic White or non-Hispanic African American. Participants completed self-report measures of alcohol consumption and positive social alcohol expectancies.ResultsPreliminary analyses revealed no racial differences in alcohol expectancies or consumption. However, race moderated the relationship between alcohol expectancies and alcohol use such that more positive expectancies predicted alcohol use among White youth, but not African American youth.ConclusionsThese results suggest that alcohol expectancies, which were thought to be important mediators of the relationship between social and personality factors and adolescent alcohol use may not be as impactful for African Americans. Future research should focus on identifying factors posing unique risk for alcohol consumption in this population.     

A comparison of African American and Caucasian stimulant users in 12-step facilitation treatment

Engagement in 12-step meetings and activities has been shown to be a powerful aid to recovery from substance use disorders. However, only limited attention has been given to ethnic and racial differences in attitudes toward 12-step and involvement. This study utilized data from a large multisite trial testing the effectiveness of a 12-step facilitation therapy with stimulant-dependent treatment seekers. We compared baseline differences and treatment outcomes between African American and Caucasian participants. A select few baseline differences were found (i.e., African Americans reported higher levels of spirituality than Caucasians; African American participants indicated more perceived benefits of 12-step involvement; Caucasians were more likely to endorse future involvement in 12-step). There were no outcome differences (e.g., substance use outcomes, 12-step meeting attendance). The tested intervention produced similar outcomes for both groups, indicating that it may be useful across racial categories.     

Ethnic differences in alcohol treatment outcomes and the effect of concurrent smoking cessation treatment

The Timing of Alcohol and Smoking Cessation (TASC) Study tested the optimal timing of smoking cessation treatment in an alcohol-dependent population. Previously reported results suggest that providing concurrent smoking cessation treatment adversely affects alcohol outcomes. The purpose of this analysis was to investigate whether there are ethnic differences in alcohol and tobacco outcomes among a diverse sample of alcohol-dependent smokers using data from the TASC trial in which 499 participants were randomized to either concurrent (during alcohol treatment) or delayed (6 months later) smoking intervention. This analysis focused on smokers of Caucasian (n=381) and African American (n=78) ethnicity. Alcohol outcomes included 6 months sustained alcohol abstinence rates and time to first use of alcohol post-treatment. Tobacco outcomes included 7-day point prevalence smoking abstinence. Random effects logistic regression analysis was used to investigate intervention group and ethnic differences in the longitudinally assessed alcohol outcomes. Alcohol abstinence outcomes were consistently worse in the concurrent group than the delayed group among Caucasians, but this was not the case for African Americans. No significant ethnic differences were observed in smoking cessation outcomes. Findings from this analysis suggest that concurrent smoking cessation treatment adversely affects alcohol outcomes for Caucasians but not necessarily for African Americans.     

Education inequality and use of cigarettes, alcohol, and marijuana

Education inequality at the neighborhood-level may influence population health and health behavior. We assessed the relations between education inequality and substance use in 59 New York City (NYC) neighborhoods. We used Gini coefficients of education to describe neighborhood education inequality and data from a random-digit-dial phone survey of adult residents of NYC to assess use of substances. Among 1355 respondents (female=56.2%; white=35.7%; mean age=40.4), 23.9% (95% confidence interval [CI]=20.3-27.5) reported smoking, 39.4% (95% CI=35.3-43.4) drinking, and 5.4% (95% CI=3.6-7.3) using marijuana in the previous 30 days. In multilevel models controlling for neighborhood education, neighborhood income inequality, and individual covariates, living in a neighborhood with high education inequality was associated with a greater prevalence of drinking (p=0.02) and of smoking marijuana (p=0.004) but among current drinkers it was associated (p=0.03) with having fewer drinks. The odds of alcohol use (OR=1.70) and marijuana use (OR=3.49) were greater in neighborhoods in the 75th percentile of education Gini compared to neighborhoods in the 25th percentile of education Gini. Statisical interactions suggest that there may be a stronger relation between education inequality and marijuana use in neighborhoods with low mean education than in neighborhoods with higher mean levels of education. These findings, taken together, suggest a complex relation between education inequality and substance use; likelihood of the use of alcohol and marijuana was higher in areas with higher education inequality suggesting potential roles for substance use norms and availability, whereas quantity used among drinkers was higher in areas with low education inequality, suggesting potential roles for both disadvantage and norms.     

Motives for malt liquor consumption in a sample of community college students

Health and community advocates have raised concerns about consumption of malt liquor, a high alcohol content beverage, among youth. Research on malt liquor use is, however, very limited, leaving unanswered questions about what strategies may effectively prevent this use. This study employed qualitative and quantitative research methods with ethnically diverse college samples to explore and identify motives associated with consumption of malt liquor. Of the motives examined, those representing social facilitation and mood enhancement were the most important predictors of malt liquor use. Anticipation of quick intoxication and economic considerations were also uniquely associated with increased consumption of malt liquor after controlling for other motives and background variables. Coping motives and availability of malt liquor, although being significantly related to malt liquor use in bivariate analyses, were not significantly associated with increased consumption of malt liquor in multivariate analyses. Conformity motives were endorsed by few malt liquor drinkers. Study findings suggest that raising the price and lowering the alcohol content of malt liquor may help reduce consumption of this beverage by young people.