Social competence as a positive youth development construct: conceptual bases and implications for curriculum development

Two major aspects of social competence were studied in this section: positive human relationships and clear self-identity. The concepts of human relationships and identity development are delineated. The importance of the development of a national identity for Hong Kong adolescents is also explained. The social competence program units focus on issues relating to national and racial identity, and human relationships (especially the resolution of interpersonal conflicts in the family and between good friends). The general goal is to foster the development of a clear national and racial identity, and positive human relationships. This paper is part of the development of the positive youth development program in Hong Kong.     

Racial identity issues among black and mixed parentage adolescents in britain: A brief overview

This paper will explore racial identity issues among black and mixed parentage adolescents in Britain. The issues discussed in this paper are offered as the initial steps toward an understanding of some theoretical concepts covered in the psychological literature on racial identity issues. The paper will also outline some practical strategies for working with young black and mixed parentage people who show racial identity confusion. In this paper, the term 'black' will be used specifically to refer to people of African and African Caribbean descent. The terms 'mixed parentage' and 'mixed-race' are often used to describe first-generation offspring of parents of different 'races'. They most typically describe individuals of black and white racial heritage (Sebring, 1985) but is not limited to this combination. In this paper the terms will refer to individuals one of whose parents is African Caribbean and the other white European.     

Agency and structure: the impact of ethnic identity and racism on the health of ethnic minority people

Abstract To understand ethnic inequalities in health, we must take account of the relationship between ethnic minority status, structural disadvantage and agency. So far, the direct effects of racial oppression on health, and the role of ethnicity as identity, which is in part a product of agency, have been ignored. We set out to redress this balance using data from the Fourth National Survey of Ethnic Minorities. Factor analysis suggested that dimensions of ethnic identity were consistent across the various ethnic minority groups. Initially some of these dimensions of ethnic identity appeared to be related to health, but in a multivariate model the factor relating to a racialised identity was the only one that exhibited any relationship with health. These findings suggest that ethnic identity is not related to health. Rather, the multivariate analyses presented here showed strong independent relationships between health and experiences of racism, perceived racial discrimination and class.     

Multiple Realities: A Relational Narrative Approach in Therapy With Black–White Mixed‐Race Clients

Notions of a racial identity for persons with one Black and one White parent have assumed the existence of only a singular identity (first Black and later biracial). Emerging empirical research on racial identity formation among members of this group reveals that multiple identity options are possible. In terms of overall health, the level of social invalidation one encounters with respect to racial self‐identification is more important than the specific racial identity selected. Here a relational narrative approach to therapy with Black–White mixed‐race clients who experience systematic invalidation of their chosen racial identity is presented through a detailed case illustration.     

Identity gaps and level of depression among Korean immigrants

Identity gaps are a new theoretical construct that provide a framework for integrating communication into the study of identity and understanding the relationship between identity and health outcomes, such as depression. Derived from the communication theory of identity, identity gaps emerge when elements of identity are inconsistent with each other. This article focuses on 2 types of identity gaps, personal-enacted and personal-relational, examining their relationships with situational variables and depression. A questionnaire was administered to a community sample of 377 Korean immigrants to test a hypothesized path model predicting that 3 situational variables (intercultural communication competence, middleperson status, and perception of racial hierarchy) would influence the identity gaps that, in turn, influence Korean immigrants' levels of depression. Results showed that all 3 situational variables predicted Korean immigrants' personal-relational identity gaps, whereas only intercultural communication competence predicted their personal-enacted identity gaps. Both types of identity gaps predicted the level of depression. The personal-relational identity gap significantly mediated the effects of all 3 situational variables on levels of depression. However, the personal-enacted identity gap mediated only the effects of intercultural communication competence on the levels of depression.     

Developing identity formation and self-concept in preschool-aged biracial children

Eleven mothers of biracial preschool-aged children were interviewed regarding identity formation, self-concept development, developmental issues and problems for their children. The racial attitude levels of their children were ascertained using PRAM II. Analysis includes the presentation of variables the mothers identified as a part of the child rearing practices to promote the dual heritages of their biracial children. Results indicate these mothers form two perspectives in promoting identity development. Self-concept was viewed as a paramount issue for development. These findings have implications for practitioners.     

Dual identity among gay Asian Pacific Islander men

This paper examines the complexity associated with having two potentially conflicting social identities in the USA: being Asian Pacific Islander and being gay. Twenty-five gay Asian Pacific Islander men completed individual interviews regarding their racial and sexual identities and the intersection between the two. Data analysis revealed diversity in ways by which individuals integrated their dual identities and expressed themselves to others; pathways by which individuals combined their race and sexuality into a coherent self-concept; and strategies for maintaining harmony and balance in self understanding. Findings emphasized the role of situational factors in determining the salience and relevance of each component of identity. Their experiences are discussed in the light of theoretical models of psychosocial development and frameworks for understanding self-concept complexity.     

Identity Gaps and Level of Depression Among Korean Immigrants

Identity gaps are a new theoretical construct that provide a framework for integrating communication into the study of identity and understanding the relationship between identity and health outcomes, such as depression. Derived from the communication theory of identity, identity gaps emerge when elements of identity are inconsistent with each other. This article focuses on 2 types of identity gaps, personal–enacted and personal–relational, examining their relationships with situational variables and depression. A questionnaire was administered to a community sample of 377 Korean immigrants to test a hypothesized path model predicting that 3 situational variables (intercultural communication competence, middleperson status, and perception of racial hierarchy) would influence the identity gaps that, in turn, influence Korean immigrants' levels of depression. Results showed that all 3 situational variables predicted Korean immigrants' personal–relational identity gaps, whereas only intercultural communication competence predicted their personal–enacted identity gaps. Both types of identity gaps predicted the level of depression. The personal–relational identity gap significantly mediated the effects of all 3 situational variables on levels of depression. However, the personal–enacted identity gap mediated only the effects of intercultural communication competence on the levels of depression.     

Prostitution and public health in New South Wales: reply to Egger and Harcourt

This paper examines the complexity associated with having two potentially conflicting social identities in the USA: being Asian Pacific Islander and being gay. Twenty‐five gay Asian Pacific Islander men completed individual interviews regarding their racial and sexual identities and the intersection between the two. Data analysis revealed diversity in ways by which individuals integrated their dual identities and expressed themselves to others; pathways by which individuals combined their race and sexuality into a coherent self‐concept; and strategies for maintaining harmony and balance in self understanding. Findings emphasized the role of situational factors in determining the salience and relevance of each component of identity. Their experiences are discussed in the light of theoretical models of psychosocial development and frameworks for understanding self‐concept complexity.     

A new conceptualization of ethnicity for social epidemiologic and health equity research

Although social stratification persists in the US, differentially influencing the well-being of ethnically defined groups, ethnicity concepts and their implications for health disparities remain under-examined. Ethnicity is a complex social construct that influences personal identity and group social relations. Ethnic identity, ethnic classification systems, the groupings that compose each system and the implications of assignment to one or another ethnic category are place-, time- and context-specific. In the US, racial stratification uniquely shapes expressions of and understandings about ethnicity. Ethnicity is typically invoked via the term, ‘race/ethnicity’; however, it is unclear whether this heralds a shift away from racialization or merely extends flawed racial taxonomies to populations whose cultural and phenotypic diversity challenge traditional racial classification. We propose that ethnicity be conceptualized as a two-dimensional, context-specific, social construct with an attributional dimension that describes group characteristics (e.g., culture, nativity) and a relational dimension that indexes a group’s location within a social hierarchy (e.g., minority vs. majority status). This new conceptualization extends prior definitions in ways that facilitate research on ethnicization, social stratification and health inequities. While federal ethnic and racial categories are useful for administrative purposes such as monitoring the inclusion of minorities in research, and traditional ethnicity concepts (e.g., culture) are useful for developing culturally appropriate interventions, our relational dimension of ethnicity is useful for studying the relationships between societal factors and health inequities. We offer this new conceptualization of ethnicity and outline next steps for employing socially meaningful measures of ethnicity in empirical research. As ethnicity is both increasingly complex and increasingly central to social life, improving its conceptualization and measurement is crucial for advancing research on ethnic health inequities.     

Mismatched racial identities, colourism, and health in Toronto and Vancouver

Using original telephone survey data collected from adult residents of Toronto (n = 685) and Vancouver (n = 814) in 2009, I investigate associations between mental and physical health and variously conceived racial identities. An 'expressed racial identity' is a self-identification with a racial grouping that a person will readily express to others when asked to fit into official racial classifications presented by Census forms, survey researchers, insurance forms, and the like. Distinguishing between Asian, Black, South Asian, and White expressed racial identities, I find that survey respondents expressing Black identity are the most likely to report high blood pressure or hypertension, a risk that is slightly attenuated by socioeconomic status, and that respondents expressing Asian identity are the most likely to report poorer self-rated mental health and self-rated overall health, risks that are not explained by socioeconomic status. I also find that darker-skinned Black respondents are more likely than lighter-skinned Black respondents to report poor health outcomes, indicating that colourism, processes of discrimination which privilege lighter-skinned people of colour over their darker-skinned counterparts, exists and has implications for well-being in Canada as it does in the United States. Finally, 'reflected racial identity' refers to the racial identity that a person believes that others tend to perceive him or her to be. I find that expressed and reflected racial identities differ from one another for large proportions of self-expressed Black and South Asian respondents and relatively few self-expressed White and Asian respondents. I also find that mismatched racial identities correspond with relatively high risks of various poor health outcomes, especially for respondents who consider themselves White but believe that others tend to think they are something else. I conclude by presenting a framework for conceptualizing multifaceted suites of racial identities and relating their various components and inconsistencies between them to health outcomes.     

NTU: An Africentric Approach to Substance Abuse Prevention Among African American Youth

The primary goal of the NTU project was to reduce risk factors and increase protective factors for ATOD use among African American 5th and 6th graders. The objectives of the NTU program were: 1) to improve knowledge of and increase intolerance of drugs; 2) to improve values; 3) to increase racial identity; 4) to improve self-esteem; 5) to increase knowledge of African culture; 6) to improve family communications; 7) to improve behaviors in school; and 8) to improve problem solving skills. Africentric philosophy and world-view provided the conceptual framework for the development of intervention activities. Intervention components for 5th graders included a rites of passage program, a substance abuse education program, an Africentric education program, a parenting program, and a family therapy program. Sixth graders participated in a booster program designed to reinforce skills and values learned the previous year. Pre and post data were collected from 5th and 6th grade participants in an intervention and a comparison group. Measures of drug knowledge, Africentric values, self-esteem, racial identity, family communication, child behaviors, and problem solving were obtained. The results indicated significant program effects for protective factors including racial identity, knowledge of African culture, self-esteem, and school behaviors.     

African American Fathers' Racial Socialization Patterns: Associations with Racial Identity Beliefs and Discrimination Experiences

Existing parenting frameworks have suggested that fathers' developmental histories and social experiences are important determinants of their parenting practices. Few studies, however, have examined how the larger racial context is related to the parenting and socialization practices of African American fathers. Using a profile‐oriented approach, this investigation examines how fathers' racial identity beliefs (racial centrality and regard) and discrimination experiences are associated with race‐related socialization patterns identified by Cooper, Smalls, Neblett, and Banks (2014). Participants were 166 African American fathers (M = 32.20, SD = 8.24) of adolescents (M = 12.60, SD = 2.20). Latent profile analyses identified five distinct racial socialization patterns among fathers: (a) infrequent racial socializers, (b) negative racial socializers, (c) positive racial socializers, (d) low race salience socializers, and (e) race salience socializers. Results indicated that racial socialization patterns were distinctively associated with African American fathers' racial identity and discrimination experiences. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.     

Victims of chronic dating violence: How women's vulnerabilities link to their decisions to stay*

Abstract: This article describes relational and situational vulnerabilities that emerged from interviews with 28 women (7 Black and 21 White) who were victims of chronic abuse suffered at the hands of male dating partners. Based on a qualitative content analysis, we explore how these vulnerabilities relate to women's decisions to stay in their abusive relationships and consider the implications of racial differences that emerged. Prevention and intervention strategies that help women see themselves as active choice makers are discussed.     

Health Consequences of Positive and Negative Interracial Interactions at a Predominantly Caucasian Public University

Many studies have reported racial conflict, negative attitudes, and discriminatory behavior among ethnic groups on college campuses. This study examined the prevalence of both positive and negative interracial experiences and their impact on students' health. One hundred fifteen undergraduates (22 African Americans, 25 Asian Americans, 29 Caucasians, 17 Hispanic/Latino Americans, and 22 Bi–multiracial Americans; 46 males and 69 females) completed an Interracial Experiences Survey (IES) and measures of physical and mental health, perceived racial bias, ethnic identity, and just world belief. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that symptoms of psychological distress and mental health outcome were best predicted by perceived racial bias, male gender, and low belief in a just world. In contrast, improved general health and decreased somatic complaints were associated with positive interracial contact, female gender, lower perceived racial bias, higher just world beliefs, and higher ethnic identity. These analyses revealed that positive interracial experiences had specific effects on physical health outcome, whereas perceived racial bias, a measure of racial mistrust, was a strong predictor of all measures of physical and mental health.     

Cultural Appropriateness in Health Communication: A Review and A Revised Framework

A revised framework for cultural appropriateness is offered on the basis of a systematic review of operationalizations in 44 cancer screening interventions for Asian Americans. Studies commonly conveyed the epidemiological bases of the intervention (97.7%) and used the language of the population (95.5%). Less commonly reported were strategies central to health communication: cultural features of the intervention messages (77.3%) and the cultural beliefs and values that the intervention focused on (43.2%). Few used cultural tailoring (4.5%) and none aimed to address acculturation or cultural identity. The theoretical framework most frequently used was the health belief model (27.3%) which does not explain the role of culture. More studies focused on cultural barriers (20.5%) than cultural strengths (9.1%). Our revised framework comprises six cultural appropriateness strategies of cultural identity, linguistic, perceptual features, content, constituent-involving, and socioeconomic context-adaptive. It prioritizes cultural identity to recognize the dynamics within racial ethnic groups and to inform adaptive efforts for cultural appropriateness. It emphasizes examining cultural strengths that can facilitate change, as well as reducing cultural barriers. Future research and action should address the disparities in extant health disparities research in which theory and methods are underdeveloped and underutilized for Asian Americans.     

Identity development, coping, and adjustment in emerging adults with a chronic illness: the sample case of type 1 diabetes

PURPOSE: The present study focused on identity development in emerging adults (aged 18-30 years) with type 1 diabetes. The three study aims were to examine the following: (1) whether identity development was affected by having diabetes, as compared with development in a nondiabetic sample; (2) how identity development was related to depressive symptoms, coping with diabetes, and diabetes-related problems in the diabetic sample; and (3) whether the pathways from identity development to problems with diabetes and depressive symptoms were mediated through coping strategies in the diabetic sample. METHODS: A total of 194 emerging adults with type 1 diabetes and 344 nondiabetic emerging adults participated. RESULTS: First, using analyses of variance, some mean identity differences between the diabetic and comparison samples were found, with emerging adults with diabetes scoring lower on proactive identity exploration. Using cluster analysis, we found that the same identity types or statuses emerged in both the diabetic and nondiabetic samples. Second, in emerging adults with diabetes, these identity statuses were differentially related to diabetes-related problems, depressive symptoms, and illness coping, with the identity statuses representing a strong sense of identity being accompanied by less diabetes-related problems and depressive symptoms and more adequate coping strategies. Third, using structural equation modeling, the pathways from a strong sense of identity to diabetes-related problems and depressive symptoms were mediated through adaptive and maladaptive coping. CONCLUSIONS: Clinicians should be sensitive to the normative task of identity development in emerging adults with diabetes because identity development can function as a resource in coping with and adjusting to diabetes.     

Identity,identification and medical education: why should we care?

Context Medical education is as much about the development of a professional identity as it is about knowledge learning. Professional identities are contested and accepted through the synergistic internal–external process of identification that is constituted in and through language and artefacts within specific institutional sites. The ways in which medical students develop their professional identity and subsequently conceptualise their multiple identities has important implications for their own well‐being, as well as for the relationships they form with fellow workers and patients. Objectives This paper aims to provide an overview of some current thinking about identity and identification with the aim of highlighting some of the core underlying processes that have relevance for medical educationists and researchers. These processes include aspects that occur within embodied individuals (e.g. the development of multiple identities and how these are conceptualised), processes specifically to do with interactional aspects of identity (e.g. how identities are constructed and co‐constructed through talk) and institutional processes of identity (e.g. the influence of patterns of behaviour within specific hierarchical settings). Implications Developing a systematic understanding into the processes through which medical students develop their identities will facilitate the development of educational strategies, placing medical students’ identification at the core of medical education. Conclusions Understanding the process through which we develop our identities has profound implications for medical education and entails that we adopt and develop new methods of collecting and analysing data. Embracing this challenge will provide better insights into how we might develop students’ learning experiences, facilitating their development of a doctor identity that is more in line with desired policy requirements. Medical Education 2010: 44 : 40–49     

Immigration Transition and Depressive Symptoms: Four Major Ethnic Groups of Midlife Women in the United States

The purpose of this study was to explore the relationships between immigration transition and depressive symptoms among 1,054 midlife women in the United States. This was a secondary analysis of the data from two national Internet survey studies. Questions on background characteristics and immigration transition and the Depression Index for Midlife Women were used to collect the data. The data were analyzed using inferential statistics including multiple regressions. Immigrants reported lower numbers of symptoms and less severe symptoms than nonimmigrants (p <.01). When controlling for background characteristics, self-reported racial/ethnic identity and immigration status were significant predictors of depressive symptoms (R² =.01, p <.05).     

Defining cultural competence: a practical framework for addressing racial/ethnic disparities in health and health care

OBJECTIVES: Racial/ethnic disparities in health in the U.S. have been well described. The field of "cultural competence" has emerged as one strategy to address these disparities. Based on a review of the relevant literature, the authors develop a definition of cultural competence, identify key components for intervention, and describe a practical framework for implementation of measures to address racial/ethnic disparities in health and health care. METHODS: The authors conducted a literature review of academic, foundation, and government publications focusing on sociocultural barriers to care, the level of the health care system at which a given barrier occurs, and cultural competence efforts that address these barriers. RESULTS: Sociocultural barriers to care were identified at the organizational (leadership/workforce), structural (processes of care), and clinical (provider-patient encounter) levels. A framework of cultural competence interventions--including minority recruitment into the health professions, development of interpreter services and language-appropriate health educational materials, and provider education on cross-cultural issues--emerged to categorize strategies to address racial/ethnic disparities in health and health care. CONCLUSIONS: Demographic changes anticipated over the next decade magnify the importance of addressing racial/ethnic disparities in health and health care. A framework of organizational, structural, and clinical cultural competence interventions can facilitate the elimination of these disparities and improve care for all Americans.