Cervical Spine Injuries in Children, Part I: Mechanism of Injury, Clinical Presentation, and Imaging

Background: Cervical spine injuries are difficult to diagnose in children. They tend to occur in different locations than in adults, and they are more difficult to identify based on history or physical examination. As a result, children are often subjected to radiographic examinations to rule out cervical spine injury. Objectives: This two-part series will review the classic cervical spine injuries encountered in children based on age and presentation. Part I will discuss the mechanisms of injury, clinical presentations, and the use of different imaging modalities, including X-ray studies and computed tomography (CT). Part II discusses management of these injuries and special considerations, including the role of magnetic resonance imaging, as well as injuries unique to children. Discussion: Although X-ray studies have relatively low risks associated with their use, they do not identify all injuries. In contrast, CT has higher sensitivity but has greater radiation, and its use is more appropriate in children over 8 years of age. Conclusion: With knowledge of cervical spine anatomy and the characteristic injuries seen at different stages of development, emergency physicians can make informed decisions about the appropriate modalities for diagnosis of pediatric cervical spine injuries.     

Evaluation and management of acute cervical spine trauma

The evaluation and management of cervical spine injuries is a core component of the practice of emergency medicine. This article focuses on evaluation and management of blunt cervical spine trauma by the emergency physician. Pertinent anatomy of the cervical spine and specific cervical spine fractures are discussed, with an emphasis on unstable injuries and associated spinal cord pathology. The association of vertebral artery injury with cervical spine fracture is addressed, followed by a review of the most recent literature on prehospital care. Initial considerations in the emergency department, including cervical spine stabilization and airway management, are reviewed. The most current recommendations for cervical spine imaging with regard to indications and modalities are covered. Finally, emergency department management and disposition of patients with spinal cord injuries are reviewed.     

Emergency department evaluation and treatment of the neck and cervical spine injuries

In the United States, nearly 5 million patients per year require spinal immobilization. The emergency physician (EP) must be able to efficiently and effectively manage these patients. To do so, the EP must have an understanding of cervical spine anatomy, spinal immobilization techniques, specific injury patterns, optimal imaging studies, and associated injuries and treatment modalities. This article addresses these important issues and discusses other challenges in the management of cervical spine injuries.     

Spinal Cord Injury With a Narrow Spinal Canal: Utilizing Torg’s Ratio Method of Analyzing Cervical Spine Radiographs

A 65-year-old inebriated mancrashed his car and presented with spinal shock and neurogenic shock from a cervical spinal cord injury without cervical spine fracture or dislocation. The lateral cervical spine radiography was initially read as normal, except for degenerative disk disease; however, Torg’s ratio method of analyzing cervical spinal canal sagittal width indicated the spinal canal was congenitally narrow. Magnetic resonance imaging confirmed this and showed bulging and herniation of multiple invertebral disks between C2 and C7. This case illustrates the value of using Torg’s ratio method of analyzing lateral cervical spine radiographs. Although Torg’s method has not been prospectively validated, it may be useful to identify patients at risk for cervical spinal cord injuries without fractures or dislocations. An abnormal Torg’s ratio may be the only clue to the fact that the patient is at higher risk of spinal cord injury when the patient’s history or examination is questionable because of head injury, drug intoxication, or therapeutic sedation and paralysis.     

Diagnostic capabilities of magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography in acute cervical spinal column injury

The present study was conducted to evaluate the imaging capabilities of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in evaluating acute cervical spinal column injury and compare these results to that of computed tomographic (CT) imaging. Forty-nine patients undergoing MRI at a Level I and regional spinal cord trauma center to evaluate cervical spinal column injury were studied. Seventy-one injuries were identified by MRI. These injuries were classified as osseous (fracture/dislocation) (n = 21), disc herniation (n = 29), and spinal cord injury (edema/contusion/transection) (n = 21). Diagnostic imaging results in 33 of the 49 patients undergoing both MRI and CT were compared. CT demonstrated 22 fracture/dislocations compared to 10 on MRI. MRI demonstrated 19 disc protrusions compared to 7 on CT. Additionally, MR imaged 13 cord injuries as compared to 0 by CT. MR imaging proved superior in demonstrating spinal cord pathology and intervertebral disc herniation. CT was superior to MRI in demonstrating osseous injury. CT and MRI may be useful together in determining presence and extent of spinal column injury.     

Emergency department evaluation and treatment of pediatric orthopedic injuries

Orthopedic injuries in children are unique in terms of the mechanisms of injury, pathophysiology, and healing. This article reviews the pediatric fracture patterns and common pediatric injuries or complaints seen in the emergency department, with an emphasis on management in the emergency department. Additionally, the approach to pediatric cervical spine injuries and child abuse will be described as it pertains to the emergency physician.     

Trauma radiology: Part V. Imaging of acute cervical spine trauma

Cervical spine injury constitutes a major cause of morbidity resulting from trauma. The consequences of a missed "significant" injury can be devastating for the patient and can create potential medical legal consequences for involved physicians. Multiple imaging modalities can be applied to imaging of the cervical spine after trauma, including radiography, computed tomography (CT), myelography, CT myelography and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Controversy exists concerning the appropriate number of radiographic views required for the screening assessment of cervical spine injuries. CT clarifies uncertain radiological findings, identifies subtle fractures in patients with neck pain or with neurological deficits but with normal radiographs, determines details of injury, and assists in operative planning. MRI has virtually replaced myelography and CT myelography in evaluating the traumatized cervical spine. MRI is more accurate than CT with intrathecal contrast in delineating epidural pathology, ligament injury, soft-tissue edema, and cord parenchymal injury. Information derived from MRI guides appropriate management and has value in predicting injury outcome. We consider indications for and relative merits of these various diagnostic modalities, and we describe imaging features of major patterns of cervical spine injury.     

MRI of the spine and spinal cord: imaging techniques, normal anatomy, artifacts, and pitfalls

BACKGROUND: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is widely used to evaluate the spine and spinal cord. OBJECTIVE: In this article, MRI of the spine is discussed in terms of normal anatomy, standard and advanced imaging techniques, general indications, limitations, and potential for the future. DISCUSSION: Although MRI does not provide the high bony detail possible with computed tomography, the appropriate combination of the sequences takes advantage of the different tissue characteristics to discriminate the various bony-and soft-tissue structures of the spine. CONCLUSION: MRI enables the imaging specialist to evaluate a large anatomic region in multiple planes and can better examine the spinal cord.     

专业运动员脊柱脊髓损伤后重返赛场的研究进展

专业运动员的脊柱伤病是损伤预防和运动康复领域中的重要临床研究课题。本文根据疾病分类回顾目前运动员脊柱脊髓损伤后重返赛场的相关情况,包括颈椎(颈部软组织损伤、颈椎骨折和脱位、颈椎管狭窄症、颈椎间盘突出症、刺痛和烧灼痛)、胸椎(胸椎骨折)、腰椎(腰肌劳损、腰椎峡部裂、腰椎滑脱、腰椎间盘突出症)和脊髓震荡与脊髓损伤。本文还分析了运动员颈、胸、腰段脊柱脊髓损伤后重返赛场的标准,以期为未来临床管理和建立共识/指南提供参考。     

MRI观察成人无骨折、脱位型颈髓损伤

目的 分析成人无骨折、脱位颈椎外伤合并颈脊髓损伤的MR表现及其临床意义.方法 收集该病患者38例,入院时均行颈椎X线、CT及MR检查,其中男32例,女6例,年龄24～62岁,平均(42.0±0.4)岁.结果 本组病例X线、CT及MR检查均未见颈椎骨折及脱位.脊髓MRI信号改变包括脊髓信号无改变4例,髓内水肿30例,髓内出血9例,脊髓软化或囊性变4例以及增强后有强化13例.其他MRI表现包括颈椎后纵韧带骨化或颈椎间盘退变或损伤后突出等,为脊髓受压迫的原因.结论 MRI可为无骨折、脱位型颈脊髓损伤患者的诊断与正确治疗提供依据.MRI无信号改变或仅有水肿表现者预后较好,髓内出血或者异常强化者预后较差.     

Magnetic resonance imaging of the spine. Normal anatomy.

Standard anatomy of the spine may be found in anatomy and radiology textbooks. However, there are aspects of spinal anatomy that are of particular importance to magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The structure and orientation of the facet joints and their relationship to the neural foramina receive relatively little attention in standard anatomic works, but they are of great importance in evaluating nerve root compression syndromes. Similarly, the relationships between the cross-sectional diameters of the spinal canal, the subarachnoid space, and the spinal cord assume a great deal of significance when evaluating patients with signs or symptoms of spinal stenosis. Changes in the configurations and composition of the spinal cord will become increasingly important to the radiologists as it becomes possible to identify and distinguish spinal cord grey and white matter. Degenerative syndromes of the spinal cord may be more thoroughly evaluated once MRI permits identification of the specific regions or structures of the cord in which the tissue loss has been most severe.     

Missed cervical spine fracture-dislocations: the importance of clinical and radiographic assessment

OBJECTIVE: To review the case of a patient who suffered a cervical spine fracture-dislocation missed at a hospital emergency department. CLINICAL FEATURES: A 77-year-old man involved in a motor vehicle accident was transported to a local emergency hospital where cervical spine x-ray films taken were reported as demonstrating no evidence of acute injury. The patient visited a chiropractic clinic 6 days later, where x-ray films were again obtained, finding that the patient sustained fractures of C5 and C6, as well as a bilateral facet dislocation at C5/C6. Computed tomography confirmed the fractures, and magnetic resonance imaging findings demonstrated cervical spinal cord compression and posterior spinal cord displacement. INTERVENTION AND OUTCOME: The patient was referred for preoperative medical evaluation. He underwent C5-6 closed reduction and anterior/posterior fusion surgery and was released without complication. Patient follow-up indicated full recovery with minimal neurologic symptoms. CONCLUSION: Cervical spine fracture-dislocations are often missed during standard radiographic examinations in emergency department settings. Chiropractors are encouraged to perform a comprehensive evaluation of patients presenting with cervical trauma even if they have had prior x-ray films reported as normal. Standard x-ray films taken at emergency department facilities are not entirely reliable for detecting or revealing cervical spine fracture-dislocations. This case stresses the importance of careful clinical assessment and imaging procedures on patients who have encountered cervical spine trauma.     

Neurogenic Shock: A Case Report

BackgroundNeurogenic shock is a life-threatening emergency associated with spinal cord injuries. Early cervical spine immobilization to reduce the risk of neurogenic shock is imperative. In addition, early recognition and treatment of neurogenic shock are essential to prevent hypoperfusion-related injuries and death.Case PresentationThis case outlines a 65-year-old male who experienced a cervical spine fracture after a motorcycle crash. The patient received stabilizing treatment by a flight crew consisting of both a registered nurse and paramedic. After assessment and stabilization, he was diagnosed as having neurogenic shock. Despite invasive treatment and resuscitation efforts, the patient succumbed to his injuries.ConclusionIt is important for emergency nurses to quickly identify the risk factors for cervical spine injuries and maintain cervical spine immobilization to minimize the risk of neurogenic shock.     

儿童创伤性脊髓损伤研究进展

关于儿童创伤性脊髓损伤的发生率、致伤原因、损伤机制和预后,国内外文献报道存在不同。近年来国内舞蹈课上儿童脊髓损伤的案例多发,引起社会关注。本文对近10年国内外相关文献进行综述,发现国外创伤性儿童脊髓损伤的致伤原因仍以车祸和坠落多见,颈椎损伤较多;而国内各种运动性损伤所占比例越来越高,如舞蹈下腰动作。损伤节段以胸髓多见,损伤机理包括脊髓牵拉和血管损伤。该类损伤在诊断、治疗及预后判断等方面尚未形成共识。     

Are computed tomography scans adequate in assessing cervical spine pain following blunt trauma?

Good quality three-view radiographs (anteroposterior, lateral, and open-mouth/odontoid) of the cervical spine exclude most unstable injuries, with sensitivity as high as 92% in adults and 94% in children. The diagnostic performance of helical computed tomography (CT) scanners may be even greater, with reported sensitivity as high as 99% and specificity 93%. Missed injuries are usually ligamentous, and may only be detected with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or dynamic plain radiographs. With improvements in the accessibility of advanced imaging (helical CT and MRI) and with improvements in the resolution of such imaging, dynamic screening is now used less commonly to screen for unstable injuries. This case involves a patient with an unstable cervical spine injury whose cervical subluxation was only detected following use of dynamic radiographs, despite a prior investigation with helical CT. In this way, the use of dynamic radiographs following blunt cervical trauma should be considered an effective tool for managing acute cervical spine injury in the awake, alert, and neurologically intact patient with neck pain.     

无骨折脱位儿童新鲜颈脊髓损伤的保守治疗

背景:无放射影像异常颈脊髓损伤为脊髓损伤的一种特殊类型。由于处于生长发育阶段的儿童在解剖学和生物力学方面的特殊性,其损伤机制及治疗方法与成人的有所不同。目的:探讨儿童新鲜无放射影像异常颈脊髓损伤的临床特点及治疗。设计:回顾性分析及自身前后对照观察。单位:哈尔滨医科大学附属第二医院脊柱外科。对象:1997-06/2003-06哈尔滨医科大学附属第二医院脊柱外科收治的无放射影像异常颈脊髓损伤患者14例。纳入标准:①临床表现为不同程度的感觉、运动及括约肌功能障碍。②颈椎X射线平片、MRI检查,未发现骨折脱位。MRI检查显示脊髓损伤征象,T1WI脊髓增粗,T2WI沿脊髓长轴分布条状形高信号区,并向上下蔓延。脊髓完全性损伤患者3例,不完全性损伤11例。在脊髓不完全性损伤中,6例表现为中央脊髓损伤综合征,3例为脊髓半切损伤综合征,2例为前脊髓损伤综合征。方法:对14例儿童无放射影像异常颈脊髓损伤患者进行回顾性分析,采取非手术治疗13例,颈后路寰枢椎融合术1例。主要观察指标:患者治疗前后ASIA分级情况。结果:死亡1例,13例获平均3年随访。无明显改善者3例,其余患者肢体功能均有不同程度的恢复。根据ASIA分级标准,治疗前A级者3例,B级者5例,C级者5例,D级者1例。治疗后恢复至B级者1例,C级者2例,D级者5例,E级者2例。结论:儿童无放射影像异常颈脊髓损伤神经功能恢复情况与脊髓原发性损伤程度密切相关,多数患者以非手术治疗为主,对存在颈椎明显不稳患者可采用手术治疗。     

12例无骨折脱位的颈脊髓损伤急诊早期诊治分析

目的：通过12例无骨折脱位颈脊髓损伤（CSCIWFD）病例的总结,探讨此种特殊型颈髓损伤的病因病机,以指导临床医生对此疾病的急诊早期诊断与诊治。方法：回顾性分析我科自2008-12-2010-03收治的12例CSCIWFD病例的急诊治疗过程。即分析所有病例受伤机制及入院后颈椎X片、CT和MRI病例资料及诊疗思路后,并急诊处理后的疗效。结果：12例CSCIWFD患者早期临床确诊后经迅速的治疗,无论是对后期的保守治疗还是手术治疗,均奠定了诊治基础,病情均有明显好转。按ASIA标准分级：B级1例恢复为D级;C级8例中,3例恢复至E级,5例至D级;D级3例均恢复为E级,其中脊髓损伤保守治疗者11例,手术治疗者1例。结论：CSCIWFD作为一种特殊型颈髓损伤,需要仔细分析受伤机制,在X线、CT未显示骨折脱位的情况下,综合病史应考虑到颈髓损伤并早期作出临床诊断,及时运用药物治疗,以利于患者达到最佳恢复效果。切勿因等待MRI结果而错失最佳治疗时间窗。     

The radiographic evaluation of spinal trauma

The authors describe a systematic approach to the radiographic evaluation of spinal trauma, discussing cervical spine anatomy, the mechanism of injury, and classification of injuries, and then discuss several specific injuries of the cervical and thoracolumbar spine and their radiographic evaluation.     

Dynamic weight-bearing cervical magnetic resonance imaging: technical review and preliminary results

BACKGROUND: Conventional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of complex cervical spine disorders may underestimate the magnitude of structural disease because imaging is performed in a nondynamic non-weight-bearing manner. Myelography provides additional information but requires an invasive procedure. METHODS: This was a prospective review of the first 20 upright weight-bearing cervical MRI procedures with patients in the flexed, neutral, and extended positions conducted in an open-configuration MRI unit. RESULTS: This technique clearly illustrated the changes in spinal cord compression, angulation, and spinal column alignment that occur during physiologic movements with corresponding changes in midsagittal spinal canal diameter (P < 0.05). Image quality was excellent or good in 90% of the cases. CONCLUSIONS: Dynamic weight-bearing MRI provides an innovative method for imaging complex cervical spine disorders. This technique is noninvasive and has adequate image quality that may make it a good alternative to cervical myelography.     

Pediatric sledding trauma: avoiding the collision

During 2006-2007, a midwest pediatric level I trauma center and affiliated urgent care centers treated 181 children for sledding-related trauma. Twenty-one children required hospitalization for injuries. Some children sustained injuries that were severe including cervical fracture with spinal cord injury, splenic laceration, pulmonary contusion, and head injury. The most frequent mechanism of injury was collision with an object or a person. Although most injuries are minor, some are serious and may have life-changing outcomes. Sledding in unobstructed areas may decrease injuries. An increased public awareness of the risks of serious injury associated with sledding is needed.