乙型肝炎表面抗原阳性患者肾移植21例

目的 总结分析乙型肝炎表面抗原(HBsAg)阳性对肾移植受者肾功能的影响以及抗乙型肝炎病毒(HBV)治疗的时机.方法 肾移植术前HBsAg阳性者21例,其乙型肝炎核心抗体(抗-HBc)阴性,乙型肝炎e抗体(抗-HBe)阴性,HBV DNA定量<105拷贝/L,肝脏B型超声波检查无异常发现.供、受者HLA抗原错配数≤3,淋巴细胞毒交叉配合试验<0.10.术后采用环孢素A(CsA)、霉酚酸酯和甲泼尼龙预防排斥反应.11例术后肠道功能恢复后立即口服拉米夫定100 mg/d,另10例在随访过程中发现肝功能异常、HBV DNA升高时,给予拉米夫定100 mg/d,同时减少CsA和糖皮质激素的剂量,并行护肝治疗.结果 10例经抗病毒和护肝治疗后,丙氨酸转氨酶(ALT)和HBV DNA于术后1年左右恢复至正常水平.预防性口服拉米夫定者的HBV DNA均保持在106拷贝/L以下,ALT正常或稍高(未超出正常值的2倍).采用拉米夫定预防性治疗者术后2年内的肾功能优于未预防性治疗者(P<0.05).结论 HBsAg阳性并非肾移植的禁忌证,术后早期行预防性抗病毒治疗可有效避免肝功能异常,也有利于改善移植肾功能.     

肝移植后乙型肝炎病毒再感染的检测

目的 检测乙型肝炎所致的终末期肝病患者肝移植前、后血清乙型肝炎病毒（HBV）DNA的含量，探讨HBV再感染的检测方法。方法 采用荧光定量聚合酶链反应（FQPCR）技术检测275例乙型肝炎所致终末期肝病患者肝移植前以及肝移植后1周、1个月、3个月的血清HBVDNA含量，同时采用酶联免疫吸附试验（ELISA法）检测HBV标志物。结果 275例血清标本中，术前乙型肝炎表面抗原（HBsAg）、乙型肝炎核心抗体（抗-HBc）均为阳性；HBsAg、乙型肝炎e抗原（HBeAg）及抗-HBc阳性者的血清HBVDNA均为阳性；HBsAg、乙型肝炎e抗体（抗-HBe）及抗-HBc阳性者73．8％的血清HBV DNA阳性；HBsAg及抗-HBc阳性者67．6％的血清HBVDNA阳性。术后1周患者的HBsAg及HBVDNA均为阴性。术后1个月，69例HBsAg转为阳性，其中48例（69．6％）HBVDNA为阳性。术后3个月，137例HBsAg为阳性，其中104例（75．9％）HBVDNA为阳性。结论 乙型肝炎所致的终末期肝病患者肝移植后HBV的再感染率较高，应用FQPCR检测HBVDNA含量能更准确地反映体内HBV的复制情况，可与HBV标志物检测互补。     

肝移植后采用阿德福韦二匹伏酯联合抗乙型肝炎球蛋白预防乙型肝炎复发

目的 探讨阿德福韦二匹伏酯(ADV)联合抗乙型肝炎球蛋白(HBIG)预防存在YMDD变异者肝移植后乙型肝炎复发的效果.方法 16例患者肝移植前乙型肝炎病毒(HBV)DNA阳性,其HBV DNA聚合酶发生YMDD变异,对拉米夫定产生耐受,术前患者开始口服ADV,并肌肉注射小剂量HBIG,以预防移植后乙型肝炎复发.术后监测移植肝功能以及血清和肝组织中HBV标志物.结果 术后平均随访19.4个月,除1例死于肝癌复发外,其余患者存活.15例于术后4周内、1例于术后6个月HBVDNA转阴,此后HBV DNA持续阴性.结论 采用ADV联合小剂量HBIG肌肉注射可以有效预防存在YMDD变异者肝移植后的乙型肝炎复发.     

乙型肝炎病毒感染患者肾移植术后的治疗和预后分析

目的总结乙型肝炎病毒(HBV)感染患者肾移植术后的治疗和预后,以探讨合理的治疗措施。方法HBV感染肾移植患者21例,术前乙型肝炎病毒表面抗原(HBsAg)阳性和(或)HBV-DNA阳性。术后18例应用拉米夫定、3例应用恩替卡韦抗病毒治疗。随访3个月以上。3例肝肾联合移植的患者术后均使用乙型肝炎人免疫球蛋白。术后定期检测患者的肝功能,肝功能出现异常者及时应用护肝药物,必要时停用钙调磷酸酶抑制剂并对症处理,观察肾功能以及移植肾排斥反应、感染、预后等情况。结果术后随访3～75个月,中位时间17个月。21例中死亡5例,余均存活。12例(57%)术后出现不同程度的肝功能异常;经治疗恢复正常6例,好转3例,死亡3例。移植肾功能正常者13例,肾功能异常但未达到移植肾功能衰竭者6例,2例出现移植肾衰竭,重新恢复血液透析或腹膜透析。术后4例共发生5例次移植肾急性排斥反应,经应用甲泼尼龙冲击治疗或抗胸腺细胞球蛋白治疗后逆转。术后出现感染6例,均伴有肝功能明显异常,经治疗后4例治愈,2例死亡。结论HBV感染患者肾移植术后预防性应用抗HBV药物是必要的和有效的;合理使用免疫抑制剂、应用护肝药物可改善患者的预后。     

肝移植术后新发乙型肝炎病毒感染的临床分析

目的 总结肝移植术后新发乙型肝炎病毒(HBV)感染的临床特点,探讨其防治策略.方法 回顾分析2000年1月至2010年12月间接受肝移植的受者及术后新发HBV感染受者的临床资料.结果 术前乙型肝炎表面抗原(HBsAg)阴性者365例,其中11例术后新发HBV感染,发生率为3.0％(11/365),多数受者无任何临床症状,仅在术后复查时发现HBsAg阳性,而肝功能正常.11例受者术后发现HBsAg阳性及HBV DNA处于复制状态后,均给予抗病毒治疗,1例原发病为丙型肝炎后肝硬化合并原发性肝癌的受者给予长效干扰素治疗,随后HBV DNA出现变异株,改用恩替卡韦治疗,其余10例受者均采用核苷类似物药物进行抗病毒治疗.有10例受者在术中应用了乙型肝炎免疫球蛋白(HBIG).经抗HBV治疗后,1例治疗无效进展为急性肝功能衰竭而死亡,1例因肿瘤复发转移而死亡,其余9例均存活.存活的9例受者中,1例出现乙型肝炎e抗原(HBeAg)转阴,4例HBV DNA复制水平为阴性(＜1×l05拷贝/L),所有存活受者的肝功能均正常.结论 对于术前HBsAg阴性的受者在接受肝移植时,应严格筛查其所输注的血液制品;对于术前HBsAg阴性,且接受了乙型肝炎核心抗体和(或)HBV DNA阳性供肝的高危受者,术中及术后应常规使用HBIG及核苷类似物进行必要的抗乙肝治疗是预防术后新发HBV感染较为理想的策略,预后较好.     

肝炎病毒携带者肾移植后的处理

目的探讨肝炎病毒携带者。肾移植后的处理。方法14例患者中，8例感染乙型肝炎病毒（HBV），4例感染丙型肝炎病毒（HCV），2例同时感染HBV和HCV，移植术前肝炎病毒DNA或RNA阴性。结果术后随访3～20个月，10例患者于术后2周内出现程度不等的肝功能异常，均以丙氨酸转氨酶和天冬氨酸转氨酶升高为主，HBVDNA和／或HCVRNA均呈阴性，经调整免疫抑制剂用量，并给予护肝治疗，患者的肝功能均恢复正常。结论肝炎病毒携带者接受肾移植后，出现肝功能异常时，应正确区分系药物性肝损害还是病毒性肝损害，及时采取相应处理，并给予护肝治疗。     

术前乙型肝炎病毒标志物阳性的肾移植受者预防性使用拉米夫定的临床效果观察

由于长期服用免疫抑制剂,术前乙型肝炎病毒(HBV)标志物阳性的患者肾移植后HBV复制增强,肝细胞损伤加剧,肝功能进行性衰竭,容易发展为活动性肝炎和肝硬化等,并且有可能发展为肝细胞肝癌.感染HBV的肾移植受者乙型肝炎表面抗原(HBsAg)自发性转阴率和乙型肝炎e抗原的转换率均明显较感染HBV的免疫功能正常者低[1].1987年1月至2010年10月,共有32例术前HBV标志物阳性的患者在我院接受肾移植,现就拉米夫定对其预后的影响报告如下.     

肾炎患者糖皮质激素和免疫抑制剂应用中乙肝病毒感染的处理

目的：观察肾炎合并慢性乙肝病毒（hepatitis B virus HBV）感染患者糖皮质激素或糖皮质激素加免疫抑制剂治疗中乙肝病毒复制情况、抗病毒治疗对策以及原发病的缓解情况。方法：HBV DNA阴性组在糖皮质激素、免疫抑制剂治疗前先不加用抗乙肝病毒药物,随访中如出现HBV DNA转阳性再加用拉米夫定100mg/d;HBV DNA阳性组在糖皮质激素、免疫抑制剂治疗前1周开始口服拉米夫定100mg/d;拉米夫定治疗失效者换用恩替卡韦1mg/d治疗。两组患者定期随访肝肾功能、尿常规、24h尿蛋白定量、HBV DNA、HBV病毒变异情况。结果：HBV DNA阴性组8/12例出现HBV DNA转阳性,予拉米夫定100mg/d治疗后,6例HBV DNA转阴,2例下降;HBV DNA阳性组9例HBV DNA滴度逐步下降,但12月后3例出现病毒变异,改用恩替卡韦治疗后HBV DNA重新转阴。结论：肾炎合并慢性乙肝患者,应用糖皮质激素和免疫抑制剂治疗风险大,无论治疗前HBV DNA是否复制表达,都应积极进行抗病毒治疗,并严密监测肝功能和HBV DNA。     

肝移植术后乙型肝炎病毒再感染的防治

目的 探讨肝移植术后乙型肝炎病毒（HBV）再感染的预防策略及效果。方法 对120例乙型肝炎、相关患者接受原位肝移植术后，使用肌内注射乙型肝炎免疫球蛋白（HBIg）联合拉米夫定或阿德福韦等治疗HBV再感染患者的临床资料进行回顾性总结。结果 经23～59个月随访，全组4例出现HBV再感染，再感染率为3．3％。4例经治疗后经随访19～26个月，均出现HBV-DNA转阴，但未见HBsAg转阴。结论 小剂量HBIg联合拉米夫定或阿德福韦可有效预防肝移植术后HBV的再感染；术前HBV-DNA负荷量与术后HBV再感染可能有关。     

拉米夫定预防肝移植术后乙型肝炎病毒再感染的研究

目的 探讨和评价拉米夫定预防原位肝移植术后乙型肝炎病毒（HBV）再感染的效果。方法 41例患者，术前诊断为肝炎后肝硬化（失代偿期）者22例，慢性重型肝炎并肝炎后肝硬化（失代偿期）者12例，慢性重型肝炎者7例，其中HBVDNA阳性16例。41例患者均采用背驮式原位肝移植，术前15例给予拉米夫定治疗，术后41例患者均服用拉米夫定。结果 10例患者术后出现HBV再感染，其中9例为YMDD变异毒株感染，术后1、2年的HBV再感染率分别为9．8％（4／41）、24．4％（10／41）。术前血清HBVDNA阴性者术后HBV再感染率（12．0％，3／25）明显低于HBVDNA阳性者（43．8％，7／16）。术前长期服用（超过6个月）拉米夫定者和未服用拉米夫定者术后HBV再感染率分别为66．7％、23．1％，均明显高于术前短期（未超过6个月）服用拉米夫定者（0，P〈0．05）。结论 术前服用拉米夫定可降低乙型肝炎患者肝移植后HBV再感染率，但服药时间不宜超过6个月；长期、单一的应用拉米夫定易导致病毒变异而出现耐药毒株感染。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.