Distinct profiles of behavioral inhibition and activation system sensitivity in unipolar vs. bipolar mood disorders

Psychiatric outpatients with mood disorders (n=275) and community controls (n=733) completed a measure of Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) and Behavioral Activation System (BAS) sensitivity; psychiatric outpatients also completed measures of mood symptom severity. All patients scored higher on BIS compared to controls; patients with bipolar disorders scored higher on BAS scales compared to patients with depressive disorders. BIS and BAS demonstrated unique patterns of association with mood symptoms. Results support the clinical utility of the BIS/BAS.     

Behavioral Approach System and Behavioral Inhibition System sensitivities and bipolar spectrum disorders: prospective prediction of bipolar mood episodes

Objectives:  Research has found that bipolar spectrum disorders are associated with Behavioral Approach System (BAS) hypersensitivity and both unipolar and bipolar depression are associated with high Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) sensitivity, but prospective studies of these relationships are lacking. We tested whether BAS and BIS sensitivities prospectively predicted the time to new onsets of major depressive and hypomanic and manic episodes in bipolar spectrum individuals.
Methods:  We followed 136 bipolar II or cyclothymic and 157 demographically matched normal control individuals prospectively for an average of 33 months. Participants completed the BIS/BAS scales and symptom measures at Time 1 and semi-structured diagnostic interviews every four months of follow-up.
Results:  The bipolar spectrum group exhibited higher Time 1 BAS, but not BIS, scores than the normal controls, controlling for Time 1 symptoms. Among bipolar spectrum participants, high BAS sensitivity prospectively predicted a shorter time to onset of hypomanic and manic episodes, whereas high BIS sensitivity predicted less survival time to major depressive episodes, controlling for initial symptoms.
Conclusions:  Consistent with the BAS hypersensitivity model of bipolar disorder, a highly responsive BAS provides vulnerability to onsets of (hypo)manic episodes. In addition, a highly sensitive BIS increases risk for major depressive episodes.     

Behavioral inhibition system (BIS) strength and trait dominance are associated with affective response and perspective taking when viewing dyadic interactions

The neurophysiology underlying the Behavioral Activation and Behavioral Inhibition Systems (BAS and BIS) and the impact of the strength of these systems on affective processing have received increased attention over the last 25 years. Specifically, left-frontal brain regions have been implicated in BAS strength as well as the experience of positive-approach affect (such as happiness). Conversely, BIS strength and negative-avoidance affect (such as fear) appear to be modulated by right-frontal brain regions. Taken together, it is not surprising that BAS and BIS strength have been associated with positive and negative affective biases, respectively, to emotional stimuli that do not involve extensive human interaction. The present investigation was designed to extend these findings by assessing the relationship between BAS and BIS strength on the perception of emotional interactions. Participants (n = 67) were shown four 2-min film clips that depict an individual exerting dominance over one or more other individuals. Each participant rated the clips with regard to valence, arousal, and dominance parameters, and then indicated the person(s) in the movie with whom they identified (i.e., the dominant individual or submissive individual[s]). Consistent with a priori hypotheses, persons identifying with the submissive character scored significantly higher on BIS sensitivity. BAS strength and BIS/BAS ratio, conversely, were not associated with character identification. Also as predicted, identification with the dominant movie character was associated with increased positive affect and feelings of dominance. Interestingly, although not hypothesized, trait dominance was also associated with character identification by virtue of being positively associated with BAS and PA and negatively associated with BIS and NA.     

Self-reported impulsivity in Huntington’s disease patients and relationship to executive dysfunction and reward responsiveness

Introduction: Few studies have directly investigated impulsivity in Huntington’s disease (HD) despite known changes in dopaminergic and frontal functioning, changes that have been associated with impulsivity in other disorders and in the normal population. This study sought to further categorize impulsivity in HD through examining differences in self-reported impulsivity between community controls and HD patients, the relationship between executive dysfunction and impulsivity, and the relationship of a reward/punishment behavioral inhibition task in relation to these self-report measures. It was expected that HD patients would report higher impulsivity and executive dysfunction and that these measures would relate to a reward/punishment behavioral inhibition task. Method: The Barratt Impulsivity Scale (BIS–11) and Behavioral Inhibition/Behavioral Activation Scale (BIS/BAS) were completed, and the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and a reward-based flanker task with punishing and rewarding conditions were administered to 22 HD patients and 14 control participants. Results: HD patients reported higher trait impulsivity (BIS–11) and executive dysfunction (Frontal Systems Behavior Scale, FrSBE) but not increased impulsivity on the BIS/BAS relative to controls. Higher BIS–11 scores were related to increased self-reported executive dysfunction and the attention/working memory factor of the MMSE. On a reward/punishment behavioral inhibition task, BAS was uniquely related to increased accuracy on rewarding trials of the flanker task, but was not related to punishing trials in HD patients. Conclusions: The relationships found suggest that trait impulsivity is reported higher in HD and may not be driven by altered reward evaluation and the appetitive nature of stimuli but rather by increased executive dysfunction and lack of sensitivity to punishment. Impulsivity in HD may represent a combination of trait impulsivity, altered dopaminergic circuitry, and executive dysfunction. Understanding impulsivity in HD is important as it is related to increased risk to the patient and difficult behaviors for the caregiver, and sheds light on the disease process.     

Experiential avoidance as a moderator of the relationship between behavioral inhibition system sensitivity and posttraumatic stress symptoms

Preliminary evidence suggests that high emotional reactivity, in conjunction with maladaptive self-regulatory processes, increases one's vulnerability to develop psychopathology. In the present study, associations between behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and behavioral activation system (BAS) sensitivity, experiential avoidance (EA) and trauma-related outcomes (i.e., posttraumatic stress symptoms [PTSS]) were examined in a sample (N = 851) of female college students who had experienced at least one traumatic event. Positive associations were observed between BIS sensitivity, EA, and PTSS. In addition, EA moderated the relationship between BIS sensitivity and PTSS, with participants high in BIS sensitivity and high in EA reporting significantly more PTSS than participants high in BIS sensitivity and low in EA. No association was observed between BIS sensitivity and PTSS for participants low in EA. These findings suggest that an unwillingness to experience unwanted private events, in conjunction with increased BIS sensitivity, contributes to PTSS severity. Further, there was a positive association and a negative association found between PTSS and BAS-Drive and BAS-Reward Responsiveness, respectively. A marginally significant EA × BAS-Fun Seeking interaction was also observed. Present findings suggests the importance of pursuing an etiological model of posttraumatic stress disorder in which neurobiological factors (i.e., BIS/BAS sensitivity) and self-regulatory processes (i.e., EA) interact to produce psychopathology.     

Error-related ERP components and individual differences in punishment and reward sensitivity

Although the focus of the discussion regarding the significance of the error related negatively (ERN/Ne) has been on the cognitive factors reflected in this component, there is now a growing body of research that describes influences of motivation, affective style and other factors of personality on ERN/Ne amplitude. The present study was conducted to further evaluate the relationship between affective style, error related ERP components and their neural basis. Therefore, we had our subjects fill out the Behavioral Activation System/Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS/BAS) scales, which are based on Gray's (1987, 1989) biopsychological theory of personality. We found that subjects scoring high on the BIS scale displayed larger ERN/Ne amplitudes, while subjects scoring high on the BAS scale displayed larger error positivity (Pe) amplitudes. No correlations were found between BIS and Pe amplitude or between BAS and ERN/Ne amplitude. Results are discussed in terms of individual differences in reward and punishment sensitivity that are reflected in error related ERP components.     

Reactive and regulative temperament in patients with compulsive buying and non-clinical controls measured by self-report and performance-based tasks

Objective

To examine reactive and regulative temperament in patients with compulsive buying (CB) by means of self-report measures and performance-based tasks and to explore the relationship between both measurement approaches.

Method

The study included 31 treatment-seeking patients with CB (25 women, 6 men) and an age and gender matched non-clinical control group without CB (CG). All participants answered the Compulsive Buying Scale (CBS). Reactive temperament was assessed using the Behavioral Inhibition System/Behavioral Activation System Scales (BIS/BAS) and the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT). Regulative temperament was measured using the Effortful Control subscale of the Adult Temperament Questionnaire (ATQ-EC) and a computerized version of the Stroop Task. To control the results for depression, the Patient Health Questionnaire-Depression Scale (PHQ-9) was administered.

Results

Crude group comparisons revealed higher BIS and BAS scores, poorer IGT performance and lower ATQ-EC scores in the CB-group compared to the CG. The groups did not differ in their performance on the Stroop task. After controlling for depressive symptoms that were significantly higher in the CB-group, only the group differences in BAS reactivity remained significant. No significant associations were found between questionnaires and performance-based tasks.

Conclusion

Overall, the findings indicate that CB in the present clinical sample of treatment-seeking patients was mainly associated with higher approach tendencies and more depressive symptoms. The lacking correlation between self-reports and performance-based tasks is in line with prior research and suggests that both methodologies tap into different aspects of temperament.     

Personality profiles in Eating Disorders: Further evidence of the clinical utility of examining subtypes based on temperament

Despite recent modifications to the DSM-V diagnostic criteria for Eating Disorders (ED; American Psychiatric Association, 2013), sources of variability in the clinical presentation of ED patients remain poorly understood. Consistent with previous research that has used underlying personality dimensions to identify distinct subgroups of ED patients, the present study examined (1) whether we could identify clinically meaningful subgroups of patients based on temperamental factors including Behavioral Inhibition (BIS), Behavioral Activation (BAS) and Effortful Control (EC), and (2) whether the identified subgroups would also differ with respect to ED, Axis-I and Axis-II psychopathology. One hundred and forty five ED inpatients participated in this study. Results of a k-means analysis identified three distinct groups of patients: an Overcontrolled/Inhibited group (n=53), an Undercontrolled/Dysregulated group (n=58) and a Resilient group (n=34). Further, group comparisons revealed that patients in the Undercontrolled/Dysregulated group demonstrated more severe symptoms of bulimia, hostility and Cluster B Personality Disorders compared to the other groups, while patients in the Resilient group demonstrated the least severe psychopathology. These findings have important implications for understanding how individual differences in personality may impact patterns of ED symptoms and co-occurring psychopathology in patients with ED.     

Emotions and BIS/BAS components affect brain activity (ERPs and fNIRS) in observing intra-species and inter-species interactions

Affective response to observation of intra-species and inter-species interactions was considered in the present research. The brain activity (optical imaging: functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy, fNIRS; and event-related potentials, ERPs, N200) was monitored when subjects observed interactive situations (human-human, HH; human-animal, HA) with a positive (cooperative), negative (uncooperative) or neutral (no emotional) content. In addition, cortical lateralization (more left or right prefrontal activity) and personality component (Behavioral Activation System, BAS; Behavioral Inhibition System, BIS) effects were explored. Both ERP and fNIRS showed significant brain activity increasing in response to positive and negative compared with neutral interactions for HH and HA. However, some differences were found between HH (more “negative valence” effect) and HA (more “positive valence” effect). Finally BAS and BIS were related respectively to more left (positive conditions) or right (negative conditions) hemispheric activity. These results supported the significance of affective behavior differentiating the species-specific and species-aspecific relationships.     

Approach and avoidance motivation in eating disorders

It has been proposed that approach and avoidance processes may be critically involved in the development and maintenance of eating disorders (EDs), including anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia nervosa (BN). The Behavioural Inhibition System and Behavioural Activation System Scales (BIS/BAS) and Appetitive Motivation Scale (AMS) questionnaires were administered to 286 participants: 91 healthy controls (HCs), 121 participants with a current ED, either AN (restrictive and binge purge subtypes), or BN and 74 participants recovered from an ED. Individuals with EDs had higher levels of sensitivity to punishment and lower levels of reward reactivity than controls. Individuals in recovery from an ED scored the same as those in the acute group, with the exception of BAS fun seeking, for which they scored significantly higher than those with restricting AN. Discriminant analysis revealed that HCs were maximally separated from those in the acute and recovered ED groups along a dimension reflecting high punishment sensitivity and low reward sensitivity. Classification analysis demonstrated that ED and HC group membership was predicted from reward and punishment sensitivity measures; however recovered participants tended to be misclassified as ED. This study suggests high punishment sensitivity and low reward reactivity/sensitivity might form a personality cluster associated with the risk of developing an ED.     

Association of altered cardiac autonomic function with psychopathology and metabolic profiles in schizophrenia

Schizophrenia has been associated with autonomic dysregulation and increased cardiovascular co-morbidity. We hypothesised that autonomic dysregulation in patients with schizophrenia is associated with psychopathology and metabolic profiles. In this study, we aimed to evaluate psychopathology, comprehensive metabolic profiles and cardiac autonomic function using heart-rate variability (HRV) analysis in patients with schizophrenia. A total of 94 patients with schizophrenia and 51 healthy controls were recruited. Each patient underwent a physical examination, laboratory tests and rating scale evaluation, and all subjects underwent a 1-h electrocardiogram monitoring. Analysis of variance was used to compare demographic and HRV variables between control and patient groups. We applied multiple regression analysis with backward selection to examine the association between HRV indices and demographic, metabolic and psychopathology profiles. A decreased HRV was found in patient groups, compared to controls. Reduced vagal-related and complexity domain of HRV indices in patient groups were correlated with increased body mass indices, diastolic pressure, triglycerides, high- and low-density lipoprotein and severity of psychosis mainly in the negative symptom domain. This study provides evidence that altered autonomic function is associated with both psychopathology and metabolic profiles in patients with schizophrenia. These findings may warrant future research in using HRV as objective markers to monitor cardiovascular health and the severity of psychosis in patients with schizophrenia.     

PTSD's underlying symptom dimensions and relations with behavioral inhibition and activation

Reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST) stipulates that individuals have a behavioral activation system (BAS) guiding approach (rewarding) behaviors (Gray, 1971, Gray, 1981), and behavioral inhibition system (BIS) guiding conflict resolution between approach and avoidance (punishment) behaviors (Gray & McNaughton, 2000). Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) severity overall relates to both BIS (e.g., Myers et al., 2012, Pickett et al., 2011) and BAS (Pickett et al., 2011). Using a more refined approach, we assessed specific relations between PTSD's latent factors (Simms, Watson, & Doebbeling, 2002) and observed variables measuring BIS and BAS using 308 adult, trauma-exposed primary care patients. Confirmatory factor analysis and Wald chi-square tests demonstrated a significantly greater association with BIS severity compared to BAS severity for PTSD's dysphoria, avoidance, and re-experiencing factors. Further, PTSD's avoidance factor significantly mediated relations between BIS/BAS severity and PTSD's dysphoria factor.     

White matter integrity and behavioral activation in healthy subjects

Individual differences in behavioral inhibition and behavioral activation may place certain people at greater risk for neuropsychiatric disorders and engagement in risky behaviors. Therefore, studying the neural correlates of behavioral inhibition and activation may help us understand neural mechanisms underlying risk behaviors in both clinical and non-clinical populations. To investigate, we assessed the relationships between white matter integrity and measures of behavioral inhibition and behavioral activation in 51 healthy participants using diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and the Behavioral Inhibition System/Behavioral Activation System (BIS/BAS) scale. Scores on the Fun-Seeking subscale of the BAS positively correlated with DTI fractional anisotropy in the left corona radiata and adjacent superior longitudinal fasciculus, and with mean diffusivity in the left inferior longitudinal fasciculus and inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus after controlling for age, gender, and education. These findings suggest that the integrity of white matter connecting extensive brain regions implicated in self-control and the processing of rewards and emotions are associated with individual differences in the motivation for seeking and participating in fun and novel experiences.     

Sex differences in the behavioral inhibition system and ventromedial prefrontal cortex connectivity

The reinforcement sensitivity theory proposes brain–behavioral systems that underlie individual differences in sensitivity to punishment and reward. Such trait sensitivity is assessed using the behavioral inhibition/activation system (BIS/BAS) scales. Recent studies have reported sex-linked neuroanatomical correlates of the BIS/BAS, especially in the regions belonging to the valuation and salience networks that are associated with the representation of subjective value (SV), whereas less effort has been focused on investigating the neurofunctional aspects associated with sex differences in the BIS/BAS. We tested whether functional connectivity (FC) of the regions associated with the representation of SV mediates the relationship between sex and BIS sensitivity in healthy young adults by using resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging data and self-reported BIS/BAS measures. Compared with males, females had heightened BIS sensitivity and increased FC between the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) seed and posterior parietal areas; this FC mediated the impact of sex on BIS sensitivity. Given that the observed vmPFC FC maps are considered part of the default-mode network, which is involved in ruminative processes, and that the BIS is associated with rumination and negative affect, our results may have implications for psychiatric disorders such as depression and anxiety, both of which have high incidence in females.     

Influence of trait behavioral inhibition and behavioral approach motivation systems on the LPP and frontal asymmetry to anger pictures

Behavioral approach and avoidance are fundamental to the experience of emotion and motivation, but the motivational system associated with anger is not well established. Some theories posit that approach motivational processes underlie anger, whereas others posit that avoidance motivational processes underlie anger. The current experiment sought to address whether traits related to behavioral approach or avoidance influence responses to anger stimuli using multiple measures: ERP, electroencephalographic (EEG) α-asymmetry and self-report. After completing the behavioral inhibition system/behavioral approach system (BIS/BAS) scales, participants viewed anger pictures and neutral pictures. BAS predicted larger late positive potentials (LPPs) to anger pictures, but not to neutral pictures. In addition, BAS predicted greater left-frontal asymmetry to anger pictures. Moreover, larger LPPs to anger pictures related to greater left-frontal EEG asymmetry during anger pictures. These results suggest that trait approach motivation relates to neurophysiological responses of anger.     

Factor structure and psychometric properties of a French and German shortened version of the Behavioural Inhibition System/Behavioural Activation System scales

The Behavioural Inhibition System/Behavioural Activation System scales (BIS/BAS scales) constitute one of the most prominent questionnaires to assess individual differences in sensitivity to punishment and reward. However, some studies questioned its validity, especially that of the French and German translations. The aim of the present study was to re‐evaluate the psychometric characteristics of the BIS/BAS scales in a large sample of French‐ and German‐speaking young Swiss men (N = 5872). Results showed that factor structures previously found in the literature did not meet the standards of fit. Nine items had to be removed to achieve adequate fit statistics in confirmatory factor analysis, yielding a shortened version with four factors: one BIS factor comprising five items and three BAS factors, namely Reward Reactivity, Drive and Fun Seeking, each comprising two items. Convergent validity and group invariance analyses suggest that the shortened BIS/BAS scales constitute a valid and reliable instrument. Researchers interested in assessing individual differences in BIS and BAS reactivity in French‐ and German‐speaking individuals should avoid using the BIS/BAS scales as originally specified. The shortened version may be a sound alternative at least in samples of young adults. Its shorter format may be particularly suited for surveys with constraints on questionnaire length. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Veridical and false feedback sensitivity and punishment-reward system (BIS/BAS): ERP amplitude and theta frequency band analysis

ObjectiveDisruption of the sense of agency and of being causally determinant in action was explored in the present research by inducing an erroneous external spatial feedback in response to the subject’s behaviour.MethodsERPs and theta frequency band oscillation (ERD) were recorded from 15 subjects when they were receiving mismatching/matching feedback information. In addition, subjective sensitivity to the external cues was monitored by BIS (Behavioral Inibition System) and BAS (Behavioral Activation System) measures.ResultsOne negative ERP deflection of higher amplitude was revealed in response to false feedback, peaking at 210 ms post-stimulus, central-posteriorly localized. A specific cortical network, more central-posteriorly distributed, seems to be implicated. Moreover, theta synchronization was observed in response to false feedback within the posterior cortical site.ConclusionsA direct relationship between ERP/theta band oscillation was supposed, as a marker of salient and unattended cues that produce an alerting response. Moreover, BIS showed an enhanced response to external feedback, and specifically to false feedback, with an increased negative deflection and theta frequency band effect.SignificanceERP negativity may represent a monitoring system, comparable with erroneous feedback effect. Moreover, specific motivation towards negative context was related to higher BIS, since they were more sensitive to negative, false outcome.     

Differential pattern of heart rate variability in patients with schizophrenia

The cardiac autonomic dysfunction has been reported in patients with schizophrenia. Heart rate variability (HRV) provides non-invasive indices of cardiac autonomic modulation. This study examined whether patients with schizophrenia may show a distinctive pattern of HRV compared to healthy controls. Nine measures of time, frequency and complexity domains were extracted from 5-min resting evaluation of HRV in 30 unmedicated patients with schizophrenia and 30 age- and gender-matched controls. In addition to inferential statistics, a hierarchical clustering (HC) was used to examine difference in the interrelationships among HRV measures between the two groups. Multivariate analysis of variance revealed a significant group effect. Significantly lower sample entropy (SampEn) and a trend towards a higher ratio of low- to high frequency (LF/HF) were observed in the schizophrenia group. In the results of HC using Ward's method, SampEn co-clustered with LF/HF ratio in patients with schizophrenia compared to the separation of LF/HF ratio in healthy controls. In concert with decreased parasympathetic activity, low complexity of heart rate dynamics may reduce adaptability of cardiovascular system to changes in internal or external environment, thus increasing the risk of cardiovascular events. Diverse HRV measures combined in a multivariate fashion appear to be useful in understanding the pattern of neurocardiac modulation in patients with schizophrenia.     

A model of BIS/BAS sensitivity,emotion regulation difficulties,and depression,anxiety, and stress symptoms in relation to sleep quality

Recent research has indicated that interactions between behavioral inhibition system (BIS)/behavioral activation system (BAS) sensitivity and emotion regulation (ER) difficulties increases risk for psychopathology. Considering sleep quality (SQ) has been linked to emotion regulation difficulties (ERD) and psychopathology, further investigation of a possible mechanism is needed. The current study examined associations between BIS/BAS sensitivity, ERD, and SQ to depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms in an undergraduate sample (n=459). Positive relationships between BIS sensitivity and both ERD and stress symptoms, and negative relationships between BAS-reward sensitivity and both ERD and depression symptoms were observed. Furthermore, ERD were positively related to depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms. Succeeding analyses revealed differential relationships between ERD and depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms among good quality and poor quality sleepers. The findings are discussed within the context of personality dimensions and self-regulatory mechanisms, along with implications for the treatment of depression, anxiety and sleep difficulties.     

Anticipatory pleasure and approach motivation in schizophrenia-like negative symptoms

Previous research of negative symptoms in schizophrenia has emphasized an anticipatory pleasure deficit, yet the relationship of this deficit to patients' motivation in everyday life is poorly understood. This study tested the link between anticipatory pleasure and two broad motivational systems that are said to regulate the intensity of approach and avoidance behavior, the Behavioral Inhibition system (BIS) and the Behavioral Activation System (BAS). It was hypothesized that high vulnerability for negative symptoms would be associated with low reward responsiveness and that this association will be mediated by the amount of anticipated pleasure. Students (n=171) with varying vulnerability for negative symptoms (assessed by the Community Assessment of Psychic Experiences) completed questionnaires regarding (a) anticipatory and consummatory pleasure, and (b) responsiveness to threat and reward. As hypothesized, anticipatory pleasure correlated significantly negatively with subclinical negative symptoms (r=−0.21) and significantly positively with BAS (r=0.55). Furthermore, evidence for a partial mediation effect was found. The findings support the notion of a close association between negative symptoms, the ability to anticipate pleasure and approach motivation that is evident even in healthy persons. It is suggested that the behavioral deficits immanent to negative symptoms reflect difficulties in the ability to translate emotions into motivation.