Lentiviral-mediated transfer of CNTF to schwann cells within reconstructed peripheral nerve grafts enhances adult retinal ganglion cell survival and axonal regeneration.

We recently described a method for reconstituting peripheral nerve (PN) sheaths using adult Schwann cells (SCs). Reconstructed PN tissue grafted onto the cut optic nerve supports the regeneration of injured adult rat retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axons. To determine whether genetic manipulation of such grafts can further enhance regeneration, adult SCs were transduced with lentiviral vectors encoding either ciliary neurotrophic factor (LV-CNTF) or green fluorescent protein (LV-GFP). SCs expressed transgenes for at least 4 weeks after transplantation. There were high levels of CNTF mRNA and CNTF protein in PN grafts containing LV-CNTF-transduced SCs. Mean RGC survival was significantly increased with these grafts (11,863/retina) compared with LV-GFP controls (7064/retina). LV-CNTF-transduced SCs enhanced axonal regeneration to an even greater extent (3097 vs 393 RGCs/retina in LV-GFP controls). Many regenerated axons were myelinated. The use of genetically modified, reconstituted PN grafts to bridge tissue defects may provide new therapeutic strategies for the treatment of both CNS and PNS injuries.     

Enhanced in vivo survival of Schwann cells by a synthetic oxygen carrier promotes sciatic nerve regeneration and functional recovery

Local hypoxia in the early stages of peripheral nerve injury is a challenge for axonal regeneration. To address this issue, perfluorotributylamine (PFTBA)‐based oxygen carrying fibrin hydrogel was prepared and injected into Schwann cell (SC)‐seeded collagen‐chitosan conduits to increase oxygen supply to SCs within the conduits. The conduit containing PFTBA‐SC gel was then applied to bridge a 15‐mm sciatic nerve defect in rats. It was observed that most of the GFP‐labeled SCs initially seeded in the PFTBA hydrogel remained alive for approximately 28 days after their in vivo implantation. The number of SCs was significantly higher in the PFTBA‐SC scaffold than that in the SC scaffold without PFTBA. In addition, nerve regeneration and functional recovery were examined after nerve injury repair. We found that the PFTBA‐SC scaffold was capable of promoting axonal regeneration and remyelination of the regenerated axons. Further studies showed the PFTBA‐SC scaffold was able to accelerate the recovery of motor and sensory function of the regenerating nerves. Electrophysiological analysis showed area under the curve of compound muscle action potential and nerve conduction velocity were also improved, and gastrocnemius muscle atrophy was partially reversed by PFTBA‐SC scaffold. Furthermore, microvessel density analysis showed PFTBA‐SC composites were beneficial for microvascular growth, which provided sustained oxygen for regenerating nerve in the later stages of nerve regeneration. In conclusion, enhanced survival of SCs by PFTBA is capable of promoting sciatic nerve regeneration and functional recovery, which provides a new avenue for achieving better functional recovery in the treatment of peripheral nerve injuries. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

雪旺细胞与周围神经组织工程

雪旺细胞(SchwannCell,SC)是周围神经系统特有的胶质细胞,不仅是支持保护轴突、维持周围神经的正常功能与良好微环境的重要因素,而且在周围神经损伤、再生与修复中也起着关键作用.目前多从幼年动物周围神经或成年动物瓦勒变性神经获取、培养SC,并与聚乙醇酸(PGA)、聚乳酸(PLA)等材料粘附、复合,预构成含SC的人工神经导管,引导轴突再生.但组织工程化人工神经、修复临床周围神经缺损的研究仍有待深入.     

Poly‐3‐hydroxybutyrate strips seeded with regenerative cells are effective promoters of peripheral nerve repair

Peripheral nerve injuries are often associated with loss of nerve tissue and require a graft to bridge the gap. Autologous nerve grafts are still the 'gold standard' in reconstructive surgery but have several disadvantages, such as sacrifice of a functional nerve, neuroma formation and loss of sensation at the donor site. Bioengineered grafts represent a promising approach to address this problem. In this study, poly‐3‐hydroxybutyrate (PHB) strips were used to bridge a 10 mm rat sciatic nerve gap and their effects on long‐term (12 weeks) nerve regeneration were compared. PHB strips were seeded with different cell types, either primary Schwann cells (SCs) or SC‐like differentiated adipose‐derived stem cells (dASCs) suspended in a fibrin glue matrix. The control group was PHB and fibrin matrix without cells. Functional and morphological properties of the regenerated nerve were assessed using walking track analysis, EMGs, muscle weight ratios and muscle and nerve histology. The animals treated with PHB strips seeded with SCs or dASCs showed significantly better functional ability than the control group. This correlated with less muscle atrophy and greater axon myelination in the cell groups. These findings suggest that the PHB strip seeded with cells provides a beneficial environment for nerve regeneration. Furthermore, dASCs, which are abundant and easily accessible, constitute an attractive cell source for future applications of cell therapy for the clinical repair of traumatic nerve injuries. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

雷公藤甲素在羊膜复合异体神经移植治疗坐骨神经损伤中的应用

目的：探讨雷公藤甲素对羊膜复合异体神经移植促神经再生和功能恢复的作用。方法：成年SD雄性大鼠30只,随机分3组,切除10mm坐骨神经造模,造模后3组分别采用自体神经移植、异体神经移植加雷公藤药物、异体神经移植。移植术后第24周,观察移植段神经形态学、坐骨神经指数（SFI,术后第8周开始）、胫前肌湿重、单位面积移植神经中段轴突数量和髓鞘厚度。结果：移植术后第24周自体神经移植组和异体神经移植加雷公藤药物组的坐骨神经指数、单位面积移植神经中段轴突数量和髓鞘厚度、胫前肌湿重各项检测指标无显著差异（P>0.05）, 但再生神经形态和功能恢复良好,检测的各项指标明显优于异体神经移植组（P<0.05）。结论：雷公藤甲素可促进同种异体神经移植神经再生和功能恢复治疗坐骨神经损伤。     

GDNF Schwann cells in hydrogel scaffolds promote regional axon regeneration,remyelination and functional improvement after spinal cord transection in rats

Positively‐charged oligo[poly(ethylene glycol)fumarate] (OPF⁺) is a biodegradable hydrogel used for spinal cord injury repair. We compared scaffolds containing primary Schwann cells (SCs) to scaffolds delivering SCs genetically modified to secrete high concentrations of glial cell‐derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF). Multichannel OPF⁺ scaffolds loaded with SCs or GDNF‐SCs were implanted into transected rat spinal cords for 4 weeks. GDNF‐SCs promoted regeneration of more axons into OPF⁺ scaffolds (2773.0 ± 396.0) than primary SC OPF⁺ scaffolds (1666.0 ± 352.2) (p = 0.0491). This increase was most significant in central and ventral‐midline channels of the scaffold. Axonal remyelination was quantitated by stereologic analysis. Increased myelination of regenerating axons was observed in the GDNF‐SC group. Myelinating cell and axon complexes were formed by host SCs and not by implanted cells or host oligodendrocytes. Fast Blue retrograde tracing studies determined the rostral‐caudal directionality of axonal growth. The number of neurons that projected axons rostrally through the GDNF‐SC scaffolds was higher (7929 ± 1670) than in animals with SC OPF⁺ scaffolds (1069 ± 241.5) (p < 0.0001). The majority of ascending axons were derived from neurons located more than 15 mm from the scaffold‐cord interface, and were identified to be lumbosacral intraspinal motor neurons. Transected animals with GDNF‐SC OPF⁺ scaffolds partially recovered locomotor function at weeks 3 and 4 following surgery. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Serum‐free bioprocessing of adult human and rodent skin‐derived Schwann cells: implications for cell therapy in nervous system injury

Peripheral nerve injury affects 2.8% of trauma patients with severe cases often resulting in long‐lived permanent disability, despite nerve repair surgery. Autologous Schwann cell (SC) therapy currently provides an exciting avenue for improved outcomes for these patients, particularly with the possibility to derive SCs from easily‐accessible adult skin. However, due to current challenges regarding the efficient expansion of these cells, further optimization is required before they can be seriously considered for clinical application. Here, a microcarrier‐based bioreactor system is proposed as a means to scale‐up large numbers of adult skin‐derived SCs for transplantation into the injured nerve. Bioprocessing parameters that allow for the expansion of adult rodent SCs have been identified, whilst maintaining similar rates of proliferation (as compared to static‐grown SCs), expression of SC markers, and, importantly, their capacity to myelinate axons following transplant into the injured sciatic nerve. The same bioprocessing parameters can be applied to SCs derived from adult human skin, and like rodent cells, they sustain their proliferative potential and expression of SC markers. Taken together, this dataset demonstrates the basis for a scalable bioprocess for the production of SCs, an important step towards clinical use of these cells as an adjunct therapy for nerve repair. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Doxycycline-regulated GDNF expression promotes axonal regeneration and functional recovery in transected peripheral nerve

Increased production of neurotrophic factors (NTFs) is one of the key responses seen following peripheral nerve injury, making them an attractive choice for pro-regenerative gene therapies. However, the downside of over-expression of certain NTFs, including glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), was earlier found to be the trapping and misdirection of regenerating axons, the so-called ‘candy-store’ effect. We report a proof-of-principle study on the application of conditional GDNF expression system in injured peripheral nerve. We engineered Schwann cells (SCs) using dendrimers or lentiviral transduction with the vector providing doxycycline-regulated GDNF expression. Injection of GDNF-modified cells into the injured peripheral nerve followed by time-restricted administration of doxycycline demonstrated that GDNF expression in SCs can also be controlled locally in the peripheral nerves of the experimental animals. Cell-based GDNF therapy was shown to increase the extent of axonal regeneration, while controlled deactivation of GDNF effectively prevented trapping of regenerating axons in GDNF-enriched areas, and was associated with improved functional recovery.     

许旺细胞及小肠黏膜下层复合生长因子缓释微球修复周围神经缺损

背景：前期实验已初步证实许旺细胞复合小肠黏膜下层及碱性成纤维细胞生长因子构建的人工神经具有体外神经活性、趋化性。目的：观察许旺细胞及小肠黏膜下层复合碱性成纤维细胞生长因子缓释微球修复周围神经缺损后神经传导的再通情况。方法：制作SD大鼠坐骨神经缺损模型,随机分组：实验组以许旺细胞及小肠黏膜下层复合碱性成纤维细胞生长因子缓释微球修复,阳性对照组以许旺细胞及小肠黏膜下层复合游离碱性成纤维细胞生长因子修复,阴性对照组以许旺细胞及小肠黏膜下层修复,空白对照组以自体神经修复。结果与结论：术后16周实验组再生神经纤维数目,DiI示踪标记的阳性神经元数量、S-100及神经细丝蛋白的阳性表达率、髓鞘及再生轴突的超微结构恢复、神经传导速度及复合动作电位的改善均优于阳性对照组与阴性对照组（P〈0.05）。表明许旺细胞复合小肠黏膜下层及碱性成纤维细胞生长因子缓释微球构建的人工神经可重建坐骨神经缺损后的神经传导通路。     

AAV-mediated expression of CNTF promotes long-term survival and regeneration of adult rat retinal ganglion cells

We compared the effects of intravitreal injection of bi-cistronic adeno-associated viral (AAV-2) vectors encoding enhanced green fluorescent protein (GFP) and either ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) or growth-associated protein-43 (GAP43) on adult retinal ganglion cell (RGC) survival and regeneration following (i) optic nerve (ON) crush or (ii) after ON cut and attachment of a peripheral nerve (PN). At 7 weeks after ON crush, quantification of betaIII-tubulin immunostaining revealed that, compared to AAV-GFP controls, RGC survival was not enhanced by AAV-GAP43-GFP but was increased in AAV-CNTF-GFP (mean RGCs/retina: 17 450+/-358 s.e.m.) and AAV-BDNF-GFP injected eyes (10 200+/-4064 RGCs/retina). Consistent with increased RGC viability in AAV-CNTF-GFP and AAV-BDNF-GFP injected eyes, these animals possessed many betaIII-tubulin- and GFP-positive fibres proximal to the ON crush. However, only in the AAV-CNTF-GFP group were regenerating RGC axons seen in distal ON (1135+/-367 axons/nerve, 0.5 mm post-crush), some reaching the optic chiasm. RGCs were immunoreactive for CNTF and quantitative RT-PCR revealed a substantial increase in CNTF mRNA expression in retinas transduced with AAV-CNTF-GFP. The combination of AAV-CNTF-GFP transduction of RGCs with autologous PN-ON transplantation resulted in even greater RGC survival and regeneration. At 7 weeks after PN transplantation there were 27 954 (+/-2833) surviving RGCs/retina, about 25% of the adult RGC population. Of these, 13 352 (+/-1868) RGCs/retina were retrogradely labelled after fluorogold injections into PN grafts. In summary, AAV-mediated expression of CNTF promotes long-term survival and regeneration of injured adult RGCs, effects that are substantially enhanced by combining gene and cell-based therapies/interventions.     

Effect of platelet‐rich plasma (PRP) concentration on proliferation,neurotrophic function and migration of Schwann cells in vitro

Platelet‐rich plasma (PRP) contains various growth factors and appears to have the potential to promote peripheral nerve regeneration, but evidence is lacking regarding its biological effect on Schwann cells (SCs). The present study was designed to investigate the effect of PRP concentration on SCs in order to determine the plausibility of using this plasma‐derived therapy for peripheral nerve injury. PRP was obtained from rats by double‐step centrifugation and was characterized by determining platelet numbers and growth factor concentrations. Primary cultures of rat SCs were exposed to various concentrations of PRP (40%, 20%, 10%, 5% and 2.5%). Cell proliferation assays and flow cytometry were performed to study to assess SC proliferation. Quantitative real‐time PCR and ELISA analysis were performed to determine the ability of PRP to induce SCs to produce nerve growth factor (NGF) and glial cell line‐derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF). Microchemotaxis assay was used to analyse the cell migration capacity. The results obtained indicated that the platelet concentration and growth factors in our PRP preparations were significantly higher than in whole blood. Cell culture experiments showed that 2.5–20% PRP significantly stimulated SC proliferation and migration compared to untreated controls in a dose‐dependent manner. In addition, the expression and secretion of NGF and GDNF were significantly increased. However, the above effects of SCs were suppressed by high PRP concentrations (40%). In conclusion, the appropriate concentration of PRP had the potency to stimulate cell proliferation, induced the synthesis of neurotrophic factors and significantly increased migration of SCs dose‐dependently. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

不同浓度的肌肉源神经生长因子对游离神经移植修复脊髓损伤的作用

目的探讨不同浓度的肌肉源神经生长因子(mNTF)对游离神经移植修复脊髓损伤作用及高浓度的mNTF是否会产生高效应。方法从3周龄Wistar大鼠腓骨肌中提取mNTF,用1mm×1mmPhast凝胶块运载后放入移植的游离神经与脊髓的连接处。并将30只成年Wistar大白鼠根据其浓度不同随机分成对照组(10只),低浓度组(10只)和高浓度mNTF实验组(10只)。结果单纯游离的周围神经移植后4周仅仅见到极其微弱的脊髓神经的再生。加入低浓度mNTF后脊髓神经的再生极显著地提高。高浓度mNTF组中虽然脊髓神经的再生能力较对照组明显提高,但是反而明显少于低浓度mNTF组。结论肌肉源神经生长因子(mNTF)对游离神经移植修复脊髓损伤有明显的促进作用,但是仅仅补充高浓度mNTF,而不补充其它营养因子,则会造成其“营养失衡”,所以结果反而不好。     

GDNF-Enhanced Axonal Regeneration and Myelination Following Spinal Cord Injury is Mediated by Primary Effects on Neurons

我们先前研究表明胶质细胞源性神经营养因子（GDNF）联合施万细胞移植能促进脊髓损伤后轴突再生和髓鞘形成。然而,GDNF介导这一过程的细胞靶点尚不清楚。在此,我们报道了GDNF可增加在体再生轴突的数目和直径,并促进体外背根神经节神经元的轴突向外生长,提示GDNF对神经元有直接作用。在施万细胞一背根神经节神经元共培养下,GDNF显著增加施万细胞生成的髓鞘数目;GDNF处理对孤立培养的施万细胞增殖无作用,但可促进已与神经轴突有突触联系的施万细胞增殖;GDNF可增加孤立施万细胞中分子量为140kDa的神经细胞黏附分子（NCAM）的表达,但对黏附分子L1表达或神经营养因子NGF、NT3及BDNF分泌没有影响。总之,这些结果支持假设：GDNF提高轴突再生和施万细胞髓鞘形成主要是通过GDNF对神经元的直接作用介导的,并且提示GDNF联合施万细胞移植可能是促进脊髓损伤后轴突再生和髓鞘形成的有效策略之一。     

大鼠喉返神经挤压伤后喉肌及神经变化的初步研究

目的:评估大鼠喉返神经挤压伤后的自我修复效果。方法:大鼠30只,随机分为对照组和实验组各15只,实验组行右侧喉返神经5 mm长度的挤压损伤,对照组仅暴露神经,不造成损伤。在术后4周、8周及12周检测各组动物的一般状况、发声功能、声带运动、受损神经组织学及甲杓肌中脑源性神经营养因子(BDNF)的表达情况。结果:术后随着时间的延长,实验组的发声功能、声带运动及受损神经的轴突个数逐渐恢复,直到术后12周,上述指标恢复至正常水平。术后4周,右侧甲杓肌中BDNF的表达量最低,之后逐渐增加,直到术后12周BDNF的表达量远远超过对照组水平(P<0.05)。结论:单侧喉返神经挤压伤后存在自我修复,该修复能力可能与神经营养因子的表达有关。     

Combination of Microsurgery and Gene Therapy for Spinal Dorsal Root Injury Repair

Brachial plexus injury is frequent after traffic accident in adults or shoulder dystocia in newborns. Whereas surgery can restore arm movements, therapeutic options are missing for sensory defects. Dorsal root (DR) ganglion neurons convey sensory information to the central nervous system (CNS) through a peripheral and a central axon. Central axons severed through DR section or avulsion during brachial plexus injury inefficiently regenerate and do not reenter the spinal cord. We show that a combination of microsurgery and gene therapy circumvented the functional barrier to axonal regrowth at the peripheral and CNS interface. After cervical DR section in rats, microsurgery restored anatomical continuity through a nerve graft that laterally connected the injured DR to an intact DR. Gene transfer to cells in the nerve graft induced the local release of neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) and glial cell line–derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and stimulated axonal regrowth. Central DR ganglion axons efficiently regenerated and invaded appropriate areas of the spinal cord dorsal horn, leading to partial recovery of nociception and proprioception. Microsurgery created conditions for functional restoration of DR ganglion central axons, which were improved in combination with gene therapy. This combination treatment provides means to reduce disability due to somatosensory defects after brachial plexus injury.     

HRP神经逆行示踪评价GDNF修饰的神经移植复合体对大鼠脊髓运动神经元的保护作用

目的：采用大鼠坐骨神经缺损桥接动物模型,应用霍乱毒素B-辣根过氧化物酶（CB-HRP）神经逆行示踪技术对构建的GDNF修饰的神经移植复合体的运动神经元保护作用进行评价.方法：20只成年Wistar大鼠随机分为4组：A组（n=5）细胞外基质凝胶-PLGA管桥接组;B组（n=5）雪旺细胞-细胞外基质凝胶-PLGA管桥接组;C组（n=5）GDNF基因修饰的雪旺细胞-细胞外基质凝胶-PLGA管桥接组;D组（n=5）自体神经桥接组.损伤各组12周时应用辣根过氧化物酶神经逆行示踪技术进行脊髓前角运动神经元的再生评价.结果：12周时脊髓前角运动神经元再生评价结果提示：C组优于A、B组,而与D组相比差异无显著性意义.结论：雪旺细胞的转基因处理可能弥补单纯细胞移植神经营养因子含量的不足,而可能达到与自体神经移植相似的效果.     

Advances in stem cell therapy for erectile dysfunction

ABSTRACT

Introduction: Stem cell (SC) application is a promising area of research in regenerative medicine, with the potential to treat, prevent, and cure disease. In recent years, the number of studies focusing on SCs for the treatment of erectile dysfunction (ED) and other sexual dysfunctions has increased significantly.

Areas covered: This review includes critical ED targets and preclinical studies, including the use of SCs and animal models in diabetes, aging, cavernous nerve injury, and Peyronie’s disease. A literature search was performed on PubMed for English articles.

Expert opinion: Combination treatment offers better results than monotherapy to improve pathological changes in diabetic ED. Regenerative medicine is a promising approach for the maintenance of sexual health and erectile function later in life. Cavernous nerve regeneration and vascular recovery employing SC treatment may be focused on radical prostatectomy-induced ED. Notwithstanding, there are a number of hurdles to overcome before SC-based therapies for ED are considered in clinical settings. Paracrine action, not cellular differentiation, appears to be the principal mechanism of action underlying SC treatment of ED. Intracavernosal injection of a single SC type should be the choice protocol for future clinical trials.     

Chemical surface modification of poly‐ε‐caprolactone improves Schwann cell proliferation for peripheral nerve repair

Poly‐ε‐caprolactone (PCL) is a biodegradable and biocompatible polymer used in tissue engineering for various clinical applications. Schwann cells (SCs) play an important role in nerve regeneration and repair. SCs attach and proliferate on PCL films but cellular responses are weak due to the hydrophobicity and neutrality of PCL. In this study, PCL films were hydrolysed and aminolysed to modify the surface with different functional groups and improve hydrophilicity. Hydrolysed films showed a significant increase in hydrophilicity while maintaining surface topography. A significant decrease in mechanical properties was also observed in the case of aminolysis. In vitro tests with Schwann cells (SCs) were performed to assess film biocompatibility. A short‐time experiment showed improved cell attachment on modified films, in particular when amino groups were present on the material surface. Cell proliferation significantly increased when both treatments were performed, indicating that surface treatments are necessary for SC response. It was also demonstrated that cell morphology was influenced by physico‐chemical surface properties. PCL can be used to make artificial conduits and chemical modification of the inner lumen improves biocompatibility. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Electrospun silk fibroin‐based neural scaffold for bridging a long sciatic nerve gap in dogs

Silk fibroin (SF)‐derived silkworms represent a type of highly biocompatible biomaterial for tissue engineering. We have previously investigated biocompatibility of SF with neural cells isolated from the central nervous system or peripheral nerve system in vitro, and also developed a SF‐based nerve graft conduit or tissue‐engineered nerve grafts by introducing bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells, as support cells, into SF‐based scaffold and evaluated the outcomes of peripheral nerve repair in a rat model. As an extension of the previous study, the electrospun technique was performed here to fabricate SF‐based neural scaffold inserted with silk fibres for bridging a 30‐mm‐long sciatic nerve gap in dogs. Assessments including functional, histological and morphometrical analyses were applied 12 months after surgery. All the results indicated that the SF‐based neural scaffold group achieved satisfactory regenerative outcomes, which were close to those achieved by autologous nerve grafts as the golden‐standard for peripheral nerve repair. Overall, our results raise a potential possibility for the translation of SF‐based electrospun neural scaffolds as an alternative to nerve autografts into the clinic.     

Decellularized nerve matrix hydrogel and glial‐derived neurotrophic factor modifications assisted nerve repair with decellularized nerve matrix scaffolds

Nerve defects are challenging to address clinically without satisfactory treatments. As a reliable alternative to autografts, decellularized nerve matrix scaffolds (DNM‐S) have been widely used in clinics for surgical nerve repair. However, DNM‐S remain inferior to autografts in their ability to support nerve regeneration for long nerve defects. In this study, we systematically and clearly presented the nano‐architecture of nerve‐specific structures, including the endoneurium, basement membrane and perineurium/epineurium in DNM‐S. Furthermore, we modified the DNM‐S by supplementing decellularized nerve matrix hydrogel (DNMG) and glial‐derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and then bridged a 50‐mm sciatic nerve defect in a beagle model. Fifteen beagles were randomly divided into three groups (five per group): an autograft group, DNM‐S group and GDNF‐DNMG‐modified DNM‐S (DNM‐S/GDNF@DNMG) group. DNM‐S/GDNF@DNMG, as optimized nerve grafts, were used to bridge nerve defects in the same manner as in the DNM‐S group. The repair outcome was evaluated by behavioural observations, electrophysiological assessments, regenerated nerve tissue histology and reinnervated target muscle examinations. Compared with the DNM‐S group, limb function, electrophysiological responses and histological findings were improved in the DNM‐S/GDNF@DNMG group 6 months after grafting, reflecting a narrower gap between the effects of DNM‐S and autografts. In conclusion, modification of DNM‐S with DNMG and GDNF enhanced nerve regeneration and functional recovery, indicating that noncellular modification of DNM‐S is a promising method for treating long nerve defects.