Interaction of the adenovirus major core protein precursor, pVII, with the viral DNA packaging machinery

Adenovirus is one of the well-studied double-stranded DNA viruses. However, the mechanisms of its DNA packaging and virion assembly are still not fully understood. One of the unique features of adenovirus is that the unpackaged viral DNA is associated with core protein pVII. Packaging of viral DNA bound with proteins has not been reported from other viruses. To characterize how viral DNA bound with protein pVII is packaged, we performed experiments to see if protein pVII interacts with the known DNA packaging proteins or the packaging sequence. Our results demonstrated that protein pVII interacted with the viral IVa2 and L1 52/55 kDa proteins, which are the known viral DNA packaging proteins. Furthermore, our protein-DNA binding experiments demonstrated that the IVa2 protein mediates the specific interaction with the packaging sequence, whereas protein pVII and the L1 52/55 kDa protein bind to DNA non-specifically. Although the non-specific binding of protein pVII and the L1 52/55 kDa protein do not appear to affect the specific binding of the IVa2 protein to the packaging sequence, and the specific binding of the IVa2 protein does not appear to block the bindings of protein pVII and the L1 52/55 kDa protein to the packaging sequence, the possibility of a cooperative binding among the IVa2 protein, the L1 52/55 kDa protein and protein pVII on the packaging sequence needs to be further determined. In summary, the results indicate that the assembly of the DNA packaging initiation complex may be mediated by the specific interaction of the IVa2 protein with the packaging sequence and other viral proteins, such as protein pVII and the L1 52/55 kDa protein.     

Capsid-DNA complexes in the DNA packaging pathway of bacteriophage T7: Characterization of the capsids bound to monomeric and concatemeric DNA

Complexes of capsids with monomeric bacteriophage T7 DNA and complexes of capsids with concatemeric bacteriophage T7 DNA have been isolated from lysates of T7-infectedEscherichia coli and the capsids of these complexes have been characterized. In electron micrographs capsids bound to either monomeric DNA or concatemeric DNA have envelopes which are: (1) significantly less thick than the envelope of a DNA-free capsid (capsid I) isolated from T7-infectedE. coli, (2) indistinguishable from the envelope of bacteriophage T7 and the envelope of a second DNA-free capsid (capsid II) isolated from T7-infectedE. coli. By agarose gel electrophoresis (under nondenaturing conditions) and SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis the capsids released from the above capsid-DNA complexes are similar to capsid II and different from capsid I. The physical characteristics and radiolabeling kinetics of these capsid-DNA complexes suggest that they are DNA packaging intermediates; the results suggest a pathway for the packaging of DNA by bacteriophage T7.     

A simple technique for the rescue of early region I mutations into infectious human adenovirus type 5

Early region 1 (E1) of the human adenoviruses has many intriguing properties which have prompted numerous mutational studies to help delineate and characterize the domains responsible for these functions. In mutational analyses being done currently, the E1 region is usually cloned into a bacterial plasmid where it is mutated and then the altered E1 sequences are "rescued" back into infectious virus. The most frequently used rescue procedures are somewhat tedious, requiring the purification and fractionation of linear viral DNA or DNA fragments, and often involve the screening of numerous plaque isolates. Several observations we have made recently on the properties of adenovirus DNA in infected cells and on infectious plasmids in transfected cells led us to design a new approach for rescuing E1 mutations into infectious viral genomes. We constructed a plasmid, pJM17, containing the entire Ad5 DNA molecule, with an insert in the E1 region that exceeds the packaging constraints of the adenovirus capsid. Following transfection of pJM17 into 293 cells the plasmid DNA is able to replicate but cannot be packaged into infectious virions. In contrast cotransfection of 293 cells with pJM17 plus an E1-containing plasmid carrying mutated sequences produces recombinant virions at high efficiencies. Neither plasmid needs to be linearized prior to contransfection. The technique eliminates the need to purify and manipulate infectious virion DNA and since no unique restriction sites are needed, both E1A and E1B mutants' as well as foreign gene inserts in the E1 region can be easily rescued into virus.     

人LIGHT基因的克隆及其重组腺病毒载体的构建

目的 克隆人LIGHT基因，构建其重组腺病毒载体，以研究LIGHT过表达与腺病毒感染对细胞生长的影响。方法 用RT-PCR法从人外周血单个核细胞（PBMC）中克隆人的LIGHT全长基因。将LIGHT cDNA克隆到穿棱载体pAdTrack-CMV-LIGHT重组质粒中，经酶切线性化后，将重组质粒pAdTrack-CMV-LIGHT和骨架质粒pAdEasy-1，以电穿孔法共转染大肠杆菌BJ5183，获得重组腺病毒质粒。最后，将线性化的重组腺病毒质粒转染293细胞包装获得重组腺病毒，用荧光显微镜、PCR及Western blot分析LIGHT基因的表达。结果 用RT－PCR法从人的PBMC中，扩增出723bp的cDNA，测序证实为人LIGHT基因。荧光显微镜、PCR及Western blot证实，LIGHT重组腺病毒可感染293细胞，并在293细胞内进行有效的复制。结论 成功地克隆了人LIGHT基因，并构建了其重组腺病毒载体，为进一步研究LIGHT基因的功能提供了条件。     

Alterations of the bacteriophage T7 and T3 DNA packaging pathway in Escherichia coli mutant TSN B

Data previously obtained indicate that, during assembly of the related bacteriophages T7 and T3, a DNA-free procapsid (capsid I) is produced and that subsequently capsid I: (1) binds to a longer than mature (concatemeric) DNA and then becomes structurally altered to a particle isolated as a capsid (capsid II) physically resembling the mature bacteriophage capsid more than the procapsid (initiation phase of packaging), (2) draws DNA to its interior (entry phase of packaging), (3) participates in cutting the concatemeric DNA to mature size. It was found that, after infection of Escherichia coli mutant tsnB (selected for a deficiency in plating T7; M. Chamberlin [1974], J. Virol. 14, 509-516), T7 and T3 capsid I is assembled at a rate not significantly different from its rate of assembly in the wild-type host. However, the conversion of capsid I to capsid II was slowed in E. coli tsnB, suggesting that the tsnB mutation interferes with the initiation of DNA packaging. Although some T3 and T7 DNA enters capsids and is cut to mature size in the tsnB mutant, the data further suggest that the entry rate of DNA into capsid II is lower in the tsnB mutant than it is in an unaltered host. T7 capsid II-concatemeric DNA complexes accumulate during infection of the tsnB mutant. These observations suggest that use of the tsnB mutant as a host will simplify studies of bacteriophage T7 and T3 DNA packaging.     

Generation of packaging-defective DNA molecules of equine adenovirus

Equine adenovirus (EAd) DNA prepared from infected bovine kidney (MDBK) cells contained additional sequences of about 100 to 700 bp at the left-hand end of the genome. These aberrant viral genomes were produced even after the first passage of the wild type EAd in MDBK cells and their relative amounts did not change significantly during serial passage. The left terminal fragments of two defective viral DNAs were cloned into the plasmid vector pBR322 and the nucleotide sequences of their terminal regions were analyzed. The data indicate that one viral DNA contained a duplication of the inverted terminal repetition (ITR) and the other contained 270 bp of additional sequences derived from the right-terminal region of EAd genome added to the left-terminal, ITR. While the former DNA was packaged into virions, the latter was not, presumable due to the alteration of the distance from the left terminus to the putative DNA packaging signal, reported to be located between 290 and 390 bp (Hammarskjold and Winberg, 1980). The possible mechanism for the generation of these defective DNAs is discussed.     

Bacteriophage P2 and P4 Morphogenesis: Identification and Characterization of the Portal Protein

The portal structure has been implicated in several aspects of the bacteriophage life cycle, including capsid assembly initiation and DNA packaging. Here we present evidence that P2 gene Q codes for the P2 and P4 portal protein. First, microsequencing shows that capsid protein h6 is derived from gpQ, most probably by proteolytic cleavage, Second, antibodies against gpQ bind to the portal structure in disrupted P2 phage virions, as observed by electron microscopy. Third, gpQ partially purified from an overexpressing plasmid assembles into portal-like structures. We also show by microsequencing that capsid protein h7 is encoded by the P2 scaffold gene, O, and is probably derived from gpO by proteolytic cleavage. Previous work has demonstrated processing of the major capsid protein. Thus, all essential capsid proteins of P2 and P4 are proteolytically cleaved during the morphogenetic process.     

The alteration of ribosomes for mRNA selection concerned with adenovirus growth in SV40-infected simian cells.

The SV40 helper function to support human adenovirus growth in simian cells previously infected with SV40 is mediated by an alteration of ribosomes to translate late adenovirus mRNA. Time sequence analysis of macromolecular synthesis in the doubly infected cells indicated that the amount of adenovirus capsid proteins synthesized was proportional to that of SV40 mRNA and SV40-induced cellular mRNA synthesized before synthesis was suppressed by adenovirus infection. These amounts were increased in parallel with the increase in the fraction of SV40 T antigen-positive cells in culture. An alteration of the preincubated S30 from the SV40-infected cells to respond to late adenovirus mRNA (24S) to synthesized hexon occurred nearly 15 hr after infection. This alteration was caused by the appearance of a new initiation factor for protein synthesis which modifies ribosomes and occurred irrespective of the induction of cellular DNA synthesis. A close correlation was observed between the amount of adenovirus capsid proteins synthesized in the doubly infected cells and the proportion of ribosomes altered to respond to late adenovirus mRNA. These results indicate that a certain early SV40 gene product acts to induced a new initiation factor for protein synthesis.     

Recombinant adenovirus co-expressing capsid proteins of two serotypes of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV): in vitro characterization and induction of neutralizing antibodies against FMDV in swine

Human adenovirus type 5 (Ad5) has been evaluated as a novel gene delivery vector for the development of live-viral vaccines for foot-and-mouth disease (FMD). In this study, we constructed an Ad5 vector co-expressing the capsid precursor proteins, P1, of FMD virus (FMDV) field strains A24 Cruzeiro and O1 Campos and examined the neutralizing antibody responses in swine after inoculation with the vector. To construct the Ad5 vector, a bicistronic expression cassette containing a cytomegalovirus promoter, the P1 coding sequence of FMDV A24, the internal ribosomal entry site (IRES) of FMDV A12, the P1 coding sequence of FMDV O1 Campos and the coding region of A12 3C protease was inserted into the E1 region of an E1/E3-deleted Ad5. The recombinant adenovirus, Ad5A24+O1, was generated by transfection of 293 cells with full-length pAd5A24+O1 recombinant plasmid DNA. The recombinant Ad5 co-expressed P1 of both A24 and O1 in infected 293 cells and P1 of both serotypes was processed to produce VP0, VP3, and VP1. We further demonstrated the formation of capsid protein complexes by co-precipitation of VP0, VP3, and VP1 with monoclonal antibodies against viral capsid proteins. Swine inoculated with Ad5A24+O1 generated neutralizing antibodies against both A24 and O1. However, the overall neutralizing antibody response was considerably lower than that induced by a commercial FMD vaccine or a monovalent Ad5-A24 vaccine.     

Interaction of the bacteriophage phi 29 connector protein with the viral DNA

The protein that forms the connector of phage phi 29, p10, binds to DNA. Apparently, p10 binding is not sequence specific. Nevertheless, the presence of the terminal protein (p3) covalently attached to the ends of phi 29 DNA produces a significant increase of p10 molecules bound to the DNA ends, thus suggesting a terminal protein-mediated recognition of DNA ends by the phage connector. As the p3-DNA complex is the substrate for phage phi 29 DNA packaging, these results may reflect a direct implication of the phage connector in the packaging process.     

BPV1 E2 protein enhances packaging of full-length plasmid DNA in BPV1 pseudovirions

We studied determinants of efficient encapsidation of circular DNA, incorporating a PV early region DNA sequence (nt 584-1978) previously shown to enhance packaging of DNA within papillomavirus (PV)-like particles (VLPs). Insect coelomic cells (Sf-9) and cultured monkey kidney cells (Cos-1) were transfected with an 8-kb reporter plasmid incorporating the putative BPV packaging sequence and infected with BPV1 L1 and L2 recombinant baculovirus or vaccinia virus. Heavy (1.34 g/ml) and light (1.30 g/ml) VLPs were produced, and each packaged some of the input plasmid. In light VLPs, truncated plasmids, which nevertheless incorporated the PV-derived DNA packaging sequence, were more common than full-length plasmids. Packaging efficiency of the plasmid was estimated at 1 plasmid per 10(4) VLPs in both Cos-1 and Sf-9 cells. In each cell type, expression of the BPV1 early region protein E2 in trans doubled the quantity of heavy but not light VLPs and also increased the packaging efficiency of full-length circular plasmids by threefold in heavy VLPs. The resultant pseudovirions incorporated significant amounts of E2 protein. Pseudovirions, comprising plasmids packaged within heavy VLPs, mediated the delivery of packaged plasmid into Cos-1 cells, whereby "infectivity" was blocked by antisera to BPV1 L1, but not antisera to BPV1 E4. We conclude that (a) packaging of DNA within PV L1+L2 pseudovirions is enhanced by BPV1 E2 acting in trans, (b) E2 may be packaged with the pseudovirion, and (c) E2-mediated enhancement of packaging favors 8-kb plasmid incorporation over incorporation of shorter DNA sequences.     

Characterization of cis-acting sequences involved in packaging porcine adenovirus type 3

Encapsidation of adenovirus DNA involves specific interactions between cis-acting genomic DNA sequences and trans-acting proteins. The cis-acting packaging domain located near the left inverted terminal repeat is composed of a series of redundant but not functionally equivalent motifs. Such motifs are made up of the consensus sequence 5'-TTTGN(8)CG-3' and 5'-TTTG/A-3' in human adenovirus 5 (HAV-5) and canine adenovirus-2 (CAV-2), respectively. To gain comparative insight into adenovirus encapsidation, we examined the packaging domain of porcine adenovirus-3 (PAV-3). Using deletion mutants, we localized the PAV-3 packaging domain to 319 bp (nt 212 to 531), which contains six cis-acting elements. However, this domain does not contain the consensus motifs identified in HAV-5. In addition, consensus motif found in CAV-2 is present only once in PAV-3. Instead, PAV-3 packaging domain appears to contain AT/GC-rich sequences. The packaging motifs of PAV-3, which are functionally redundant but not equivalent, are located at the left end of the genome.     

‘Let the phage do the work’: Using the phage P22 coat protein structures as a framework to understand its folding and assembly mutants

The amino acid sequence of viral capsid proteins contains information about their folding, structure and self-assembly processes. While some viruses assemble from small preformed oligomers of coat proteins, other viruses such as phage P22 and herpesvirus assemble from monomeric proteins (Fuller and King, 1980; Newcomb et al., 1999). The subunit assembly process is strictly controlled through protein:protein interactions such that icosahedral structures are formed with specific symmetries, rather than aberrant structures. dsDNA viruses commonly assemble by first forming a precursor capsid that serves as a DNA packaging machine ( [Earnshaw et al., 1980] and [Heymann et al., 2003]). DNA packaging is accompanied by a conformational transition of the small precursor procapsid into a larger capsid for isometric viruses. Here we highlight the pseudo-atomic structures of phage P22 coat protein and rationalize several decades of data about P22 coat protein folding, assembly and maturation generated from a combination of genetics and biochemistry.     

On the molecular mechanism of DNA translocation during in vitro packaging of bacteriophage T3 DNA

The process of packaging of bacteriophage T3 DNA in a defined in vitro system can be separated into two stages: formation of a precursor complex (50 S complex) in the presence of adenosine-5'-O-(3'-thiotriphosphate) (ATP-gamma-S) and subsequent translocation of DNA into the head by the addition of ATP. Packaged DNA exits when DNA translocation is interrupted by the addition of ATP-gamma-S (M. Shibata, H. Fujisawa, and T. Minagawa, 1987, Virology, in press; M. Shibata, H. Fujisawa, and T. Minagawa, 1987, J. Mol. Biol., in press). The in vitro system packaged nicked and cross-linked DNAs but did not package single-stranded DNA. DNA packaging was inhibited by intercalating reagents such as ethidium bromide, acridine orange, and 4',6-diamino-2-phenylindole dihydrochloride. The inhibitory effect was proportional to the ability of intercalating agents to unwind DNA. Ethidium bromide did not inhibit the formation of 50 S complex but blocked translocation of DNA into and out of the capsid. DNA packaging was inhibited by actinomycin D and distamycin A which bind to the minor groove of the DNA helix. From these results, we conclude that DNA packaging mechanism utilizes the exterior structure of duplex DNA for translocating the DNA into the capsid.     

人微小RNA-16（miR-16）重组腺病毒的制备和鉴定

目的制备人微小RNA-16（miR-16）重组腺病毒,研究其在人骨髓间充质干细胞（hMSCs）中的表达及对细胞周期素依赖蛋白激酶6（CDK6）表达的影响。方法从人基因组DNA中扩增miR-16前体的DNA,定向插入腺病毒穿梭载体pAdTrack-CMV。将经PmeⅠ线性化的重组穿梭载体pAdTrack-CMV-miR-16与腺病毒骨架质粒pAdEasy-1共转化感受态大肠杆菌BJ5183,在细菌内同源重组获得重组腺病毒质粒rAdTrack-miR-16。将经PacⅠ线性化的rAdTrack-miR-16在人胚肾293细胞（HEK293）中包装并扩增出miR-16的重组腺病毒rAd-miR-16。将重组腺病毒感染hMSCs,分别检测miR-16前体和miR-16靶基因CDK6的表达。结果 pAdTrack-CMV-miR-16构建正确,在HEK293细胞中成功包装并扩增出重组腺病毒rAd-miR-16。rAd-miR-16感染的hMSCs中miR-16前体水平显著升高（P〈0.05）,CDK6mRNA的表达降低不明显,CDK6蛋白表达水平显著降低（P〈0.01）。结论成功制备了表达人miR-16的重组腺病毒,并能有效介导miR-16在hMSCs中的表达,为进行miR-16的功能研究创造了条件。     

重组大鼠脑源性神经营养因子腺病毒的构建及体外表达分析

目的构建含有大鼠脑源性神经营养因子(BDNF)基因的重组腺病毒(AD)载体,并分析其体外表达情况。方法将采用RT-PCR技术获取的大鼠BDNF的cDNA基因定向克隆入穿梭质粒pAdTrack-CMV中。通过与腺病毒骨架载体pAdeasy-1在细菌内同源重组形成重组腺病毒质粒pAd-BDNF,转染人胚肾293细胞后包装成有感染能力的重组腺病毒颗粒(Ad-BDNF)。重组病毒感染体外培养的Hela细胞后,用RT-PCR、Western blot及免疫细胞化学检测细胞BDNF基因及蛋白表达情况。结果 pAd-BDNF测序结果和预期一致,同源重组并经293细胞包装后形成重组腺病毒Ad-BDNF,重组病毒感染Hela细胞后能高水平表达BDNF。结论成功制备了重组腺病毒Ad-BDNF,感染细胞证实其呈分泌表达,为将其进一步应用于神经系统损伤性疾病治疗的研究打下了基础。     

Studies on the defectiveness of adeno-associated virus (AAV). I. Effects of phosphonoacetic acid and 2-deoxy-D-glucose on the replication of AAV.

Adeno-associated viruses (AAV) are defective parvoviruses which require the presence of a helper virus, either an adenovirus or a herpesvirus, to initiate their replication cycle. The mechanisms by which these helper viruses can promote AAV macromolecular synthesis have been investigated in systems where the replication of the helper virus was altered. In the first system, phosphonoacetic acid (PAA), a specific inhibitor of herpesvirus-coded DNA polymerase, was used in AAV-herpes simplex virus (HSV) coinfections to determine what effect this drug would have on the replication of AAV. It was found that in the presence of increasing concentrations of PAA, the synthesis of AAV DNA, structural proteins, and immunofluorescent (IF) capsid antigens was inhibited. However, when an adenovirus helper was used in place of HSV, this inhibition was not seen. It was also found that the addition of the drug 5 hr after infection was still effective in inhibiting AAV capsid antigen synthesis completely. This finding indicates that the PAA-sensitive event required by AAV occurs relatively late in the HSV cycle. Restoration of HSV DNA polymerase activity by reversal of a PAA block was not sufficient for initiating AAV replication. De novo protein synthesis was required also. In the second system, the effects of 2-deoxy-d-glucose (2DG), an inhibitor of protein glycosylation, on AAV replication were also examined. In AAV coinfections with HSV, increasing concentrations of 2DG inhibited the production of AAV IF capsid antigens. Conversely, production of AAV intracellular proteins was enhanced with increasing 2DG concentrations. Under these conditions the pattern of IF staining for the major AAV polypeptide was normal. Thus 2DG appears to interfere with the assembly of AAV proteins into a capsid configuration. In experiments with an adenovirus helper, 2DG was found to inhibit initiation of AAV replication through early adenovirus functions.