Postictal symptoms help distinguish patients with epileptic seizures from those with non-epileptic seizures.

The aim of the study was to assess whether post-ictal symptoms can help distinguish patients who have epileptic seizures from those with non-epileptic seizures (NES). We reviewed the spontaneous responses to the question 'What symptoms do you have after a seizure?' in 16 patients with epileptic seizures (predominantly focal with secondary generalization or generalized tonic-clonic) and 23 NES patients. Six of the 16 patients (38%) vs. only one of 23 NES patients (4.3%) noted post-ictal headache (P = 0.008). Nine epilepsy patients (56%) vs. three NES patients (13%) reported post-ictal fatigue (P = 0.004). Confusion or other symptoms did not distinguish epilepsy patients from those with NES. All epilepsy patients had at least one post-ictal symptom while 12 NES patients (52%) had none (P = 0.001). Therefore, patients evaluated for epileptic vs. non-epileptic seizures who have post-ictal fatigue or headache, are more likely to have epileptic seizures. Patients with a diagnosis of NES who note post-ictal fatigue or headache should be investigated further.     

视频脑电图在小儿癫痫诊断中的应用

目的评价视频脑电图(video-EEG)在小儿癫诊断中的应用价值。方法对126例具有发作性症状的患儿进行连续8h的包括清醒、睡眠、诱发试验及必要的认知测验的视频脑电图监测。结果经发作期视频脑电图证实,39例初诊为癫性发作的患儿中14例(35%)为非癫性发作;15例其他症状发作中13例(86%)为非癫性发作。64例样放电患儿中51例(80%)确定发作类型,22例(34%)确定癫类型。视频脑电图可发现短暂轻微的癫发作及样放电引起的一过性认知损伤。结论视频脑电图在排除非癫性发作、确定癫性发作的类型、评价脑电-临床关系方面可提供准确可靠的证据,进一步提高癫的临床诊断水平。     

Patients with epilepsy and psychogenic non-epileptic seizures: an inpatient video-EEG monitoring study

Seizure and EEG characteristics of patients with epilepsy and concomitant psychogenic non-epileptic seizures (PNES) were compared to age and sex matched controls with epilepsy alone in a retrospective case control study. 39 patients with clearly documented epileptic and non-epileptic events were compared to 78 age and sex matched controls, sequentially admitted for video-EEG monitoring with documentation of epilepsy alone. Frontal seizures were higher in prevalence in patients with PNES who had concomitant epilepsy (P<0.001), while temporal seizures were higher in prevalence in patients with epilepsy alone (P<0.04). On regression analysis, the odds of having a frontal seizure was found to be significantly lower in the epilepsy alone group compared to the epilepsy+PNES group (odds ratio 0.13, 95% CI, 0.033-0.51). This significant association between frontal lobe epilepsy and PNES may be related to misattribution of frontal seizures for PNES events, or may reflect frontal lobe cortical dysfunction in this subgroup.     

De Novo Psychogenic Nonepileptic Seizures After Epilepsy Surgery

Summary: Purpose: The occurrence of de novo nonepileptic seizures (NES) after epilepsy surgery have been reported only twice in the literature (one article and one abstract).
Methods: We report three patients whose de novo NES were documented by video-EEG telemetry after epilepsy surgery. These patients were drawn from a sample of 166 consecutive patients who underwent epilepsy surgery at our center between 1989 and 1996.
Results: Two patients became seizure free after surgery, and one had significant improvement of her seizures. The interval between the date of surgery and the development of the symptoms was variable (8, 10, and 47 months, respectively). The clinical phenomena of NES differed from those of the epileptic seizures preceding surgery. Their diagnosis had not been suspected in two patients before the diagnostic video-EEG monitoring study. After the diagnosis of NES, spells stopped in two patients and recurred rarely in one.
Conclusions: We conclude that de novo NES appears to occur rarely after epilepsy surgery. Given that the possibility of NES was suspected in only one patient, its incidence after surgery may be higher than so far reported. Physicians should therefore consider NES in the differential diagnosis of recurrent seizures after a seizure-free period after epilepsy surgery.     

A comparative study of trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder prevalence in epilepsy patients and psychogenic nonepileptic seizure patients

PURPOSE: This study tests the hypothesis that trauma histories, including histories of physical and sexual abuse, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are more prevalent in psychogenic non-epileptic seizure (NES) patients than in epilepsy patients. METHODS: Thirty-five inpatients with intractable seizures were evaluated for trauma history and PTSD. After these assessments, patients were diagnosed as having either epileptic or nonepileptic seizures through EEG monitoring. RESULTS: NES diagnosis correlated with PTSD and total number of lifetime traumas, adult traumas, and abuse traumas. Contrary to previous hypotheses, reported childhood sexual abuse (CSA) did not correlate significantly with NES diagnosis. However, CSA predicted PTSD in a discriminant analysis. CONCLUSIONS: We found evidence for the hypothesized relations between trauma, abuse, PTSD, and NES diagnosis. However, elevated levels in both seizure-disorder groups suggest that routine assessment for abuse, trauma, and PTSD might facilitate medical care and treatment for all intractable seizure patients.     

The Absence of Interictal Spikes with Documented Seizures Suggests Extratemporal Epilepsy

PURPOSE: To determine the demographic and clinical characteristics of patients who have documented epileptic seizures on long-term video-EEG monitoring who do not have interictal spikes. METHODS: The records of 1,223 monitoring studies from 919 patients who underwent noninvasive long-term video-EEG monitoring were reviewed. In 28 patients (3.0% of monitored patients, 4.4% of patients with electrographic evidence of epilepsy), no interictal spikes were found despite the occurrence of at least one recorded electrographic seizure. The demographic, medical, neuropsychological, and EEG data of these patients were compared with those of 28 matched control patients with documented interictal spikes. RESULTS: Extratemporal seizures were significantly more frequent in the patients with at least one recorded epileptic seizure but without interictal spikes compared with patients with epileptic seizures and interictal spikes (p = 0.031). The only other significant difference between the groups (p = 0.016) was a later age at seizure onset (18.3 vs. 10.7 years) for the patients without interictal spikes. Age at evaluation, gender, handedness, clinical seizure type, family history of epilepsy, history of febrile seizures, neuropsychological testing, and neurologic and psychiatric history did not differ between the two groups. CONCLUSIONS: In patients with documented epilepsy without interictal spikes on EEG monitoring, the possibility of an extratemporal focus should be considered.     

Psychogenic non-epileptic seizures: can we make a positive diagnosis?

Many disorders other than epilepsy are characterized by paroxysmal events. Psychogenic non-epileptic seizures (NES) form one differential diagnostic group which mimic epileptic phenomena and are caused by various psychic disorders. The diagnosis of NES is mostly based on the exclusion of epilepsy. We review the histories of six patients, who were hospitalized in an epilepsy unit and were diagnosed as having psychogenic NES. Most of them had been previously given the diagnosis of epilepsy. It is suggested that for accurate diagnosis it is very important that a patient initially undergoes psychiatric assessment along with standard diagnostic procedures (e.g. neurologic, psychological and physical investigations), that may encourage making a positive diagnosis of non-epilepsy.     

The tendency to have psychogenic non-epileptic attacks out of camera view during long-term video-EEG monitoring.

The aim of this study was to compare out of camera view seizure occurrence rates between psychogenic non-epileptic and epileptic seizures during long-term video-EEG monitoring. From 1996 to 2001, 208 adult patients were monitored in 212 sessions, and 196 patients were included in the study. Depending on video-EEG recordings and witnessed accounts, 18 of the patients had no seizures recorded, 160 had epileptic seizures and 18 had psychogenic non-epileptic seizures, four of whom had psychogenic non-epileptic seizures plus true epileptic seizures. Six hundred and ninety two seizures were recorded; 634 of them were epileptic seizures and 58 of them, psychogenic non-epileptic ones. Out of camera attack occurrence was significantly higher in patients with psychogenic non-epileptic attacks compared with epileptic ones (chi-square with Yates correction = 19.75, df = 1, P< 0.001).     

Video-EEG monitoring of paroxysmal events in the elderly

OBJECTIVES: To determine the importance of video-EEG monitoring (VEM) in elderly patients with various paroxysmal events. MATERIAL AND METHODS: We retrospectively identified 16 subjects > or = 60 years old out of 834 (1.9%; 7 females, mean age 67.8 +/- 7.7 years), who were admitted to the Video-EEG Unit between 1997 and 2005 and compared data between those with and without epileptic events. RESULTS: Epilepsy was confirmed in six patients, psychogenic non-epileptic seizures (NES) were diagnosed in seven, one patient had NES and epilepsy whereas the recorded events were non-conclusive in two. NES patients had a higher predisposition to psychiatric disturbances (P<0.02). Following VEM and management alteration, the frequency of monthly events decreased significantly for the cohort as a whole (P<0.001). VEM directly influenced the diagnosis, treatment and outcome of 14 of 16 (88%) patients. CONCLUSION: Video-EEM plays a vital role in the evaluation of paroxysmal events in the elderly, but is vastly underutilized in this population group.     

Etiologic and diagnostic factors of psychogenic pseudo-epileptic seizures

The term psychogenic pseudoepileptic seizures (or psychogenic non-epileptic seizures-NES) generally refers to episodes of psychological origin that resemble epilepsy but without underlying epilepsy. The diagnosis of pseudo-epileptic seizures is confirmed in 5-33% of patients that are considered to suffer from refractory epilepsies. Making a correct diagnosis in patients presenting with attack disorders is sometimes very difficult. However, the best way to establish differential diagnosis of epileptic and pseudoepileptic seizures is to apply long-term video EEG monitoring. Triggering a seizure by means of placebo administration or suggestion to start or stop seizure can be also a helpful method in differential diagnosis. Over the last decade epileptologist have been paying increasing attention to the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) scales in describing or distinguishing real epileptic seizures vs. non-epileptic attacks. The results of the study may have practical implications for neurological and epilepsy centres, and for improving clinical knowledge and allow to establish aetiological classification of psychogenic pseudoepileptic seizures.     

Ictal Behaviors During Nonepileptic Seizures Differ in Patients with Temporal Lobe Interictal Epileptiform EEG Activity and Patients Without Interictal Epileptiform EEG Abnormalities

Summary: Purpose: Ictal behaviors during psychogenic non-epileptic seizures (NES) vary considerably among individuals, and can closely resemble common semiologies of epileptic seizures (ES). We tested the hypothesis that behaviors during NES in patients who have temporal spikes would more closely resemble behaviors during ES in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy than would behaviors during NES in patients who do not have EEG spikes.
Methods: We identified 20 patients who had interictal temporal EEG spikes and EEG-video recorded NES (Study Group), 133 patients with temporal EEG spikes and recorded ES, without NES (Epileptic Group), and 24 patients with recorded NES and no epileptiform EEG abnormalities, without ES (Nonepileptic Group).
Results: The hypothesis was supported with regard to ictal motor behaviors. Motionless staring or complex automatisms occurred mainly during NES in the Study Group and during ES in the Epileptic Group. In contrast, convulsive movements or flaccid falls were most common during NES in the Nonepileptic Group. Duration of unresponsiveness was longer, and there were fewer postictal states in NES both in the Study and Non-epileptic Groups. Unresponsiveness was briefer and postictal states were more consistent in ES in the Epileptic Group, however.
Conclusions: Stereotyped motor activities during NES presumably represent learned behaviors. Processes underlying acquisition of ictal behaviors of NES probably differ in patients with interictal epileptiform EEG abnormalities compared to those without. Prior experiences and temporal lobe dysfunctions that are associated with epilepsy, and psychological characteristics that are unrelated to interictal epileptic dysfunctions, may determine ictal behaviors during NES.     

Non-epileptic seizures: delayed diagnosis in patients presenting with electroencephalographic (EEG) or clinical signs of epileptic seizures.

The clinical differentiation between epileptic seizures (ES) and non-epileptic seizures (NES) is often difficult and mostly based on the presence or absence of widely recognized features of ES such as tongue biting, falling, incontinence or concomitant epileptic abnormalities in the electroencephalogram (EEG). We retrospectively analysed the records of all patients referred to our Epilepsy Centre for refractory epilepsy and finally diagnosed with NES between 1980 and 1999 ( n= 103), half of them also exhibiting ES. The mean time-lapse between first attack and NES diagnosis was 8.7 +/- 1.3 years and 16.5 +/- 1.4 years for the NES and NES + ES groups respectively. At least one of the usual signs associated with generalized tonic-clonic seizures (tongue biting, falling or incontinence) was reported by 66% and 60% of patients with NES or NES + ES respectively. Interictal EEG abnormalities were recorded in 16% of NES patients vs. 80% of NES + ES patients. In the NES group, delay before establishing the correct diagnosis was significantly longer when the patients exhibited > or =1 symptom(s) of generalized seizures, or when patients exhibited interictal EEG abnormalities. Upon admission, 72% of NES patients and all NES + ES patients were being treated with antiepileptic drugs (AEDs).We conclude that EEG or clinical abnormalities suggestive of epileptic seizures are common in undiagnosed NES patients. Such diagnostic pitfalls, besides considerably delaying NES diagnosis, also considerably delay appropriate treatment implementation.     

Video-EEG in the diagnosis of paroxysmal events in children with mental retardation and in children with normal intelligence

Video-EEG monitoring was performed to evaluate 193 children (91 females, 102 males; mean age 9.6 years, SD 5.7) who presented with paroxysmal events of uncertain etiology. Diagnosis of the type of event, i.e. epileptic or non-epileptic, was successfully established in 130 of 193 patients (67.3%). Seventy children (36%) had mental retardation* (MR). Children with MR were more likely (p<0.05) than children without MR to have events during the studies. Children with and without MR had strikingly similar frequencies of epileptic and non-epileptic events. In participants who had events recorded and characterized, epileptic seizures were identified in 67 children (51.5%), non-epileptic events in 54 children (41.5%), and both epileptic and non-epileptic events in nine children (7%). Improved diagnosis prompted appropriate management. This should encourage more frequent use of video-EEG in children, especially in those with MR, to differentiate epilepsy from behavioral disturbances so that specific treatment can be provided.     

长程视频脑电监测对癫痫间的诊断价值

目的 评价长程视频脑电图对癫痫间等发作性疾病的诊断价值,提高癫痫间及癫痫间综合征的诊断。方法 对在本院神经内科癫痫间中心门诊及住院患者中首次以发作性疾病就诊的患者进行不同时程的视频脑电图监测,对其临床资料进行回顾性分析。结果 24 h组视频脑电监测对癫痫间异常脑波放电的阳性检出率较高(76.9%),8 h组最低(30.1%),15 h组介于两者之间(55.4%),在24 h组1920例患者中有1476例有异常放电,287例记录到临床同步发作,其中153例明确癫痫间发作类型,153例中96例进一步明确为癫痫间综合征,使对癫痫间的分型及癫痫间综合征的分类更加明了细化。结论 24 h视频脑电监测能够显著提高癫痫间患者的诊断率及异常脑波的检出率,有效地降低了假阴性率并且在癫痫间的鉴别诊断、分型及癫痫间综合症的诊断方面有重要的临床意义,同时对其他发作性疾病的鉴别提供了可靠的的临床依据。     

Provocation of Nonepileptic Seizures by Suggestion in a General Seizure Population

Summary: Nonepileptic seizures (NES) are common and are often diagnosed at epilepsy centers by video-EEG recording of both spontaneous and suggestion-induced episodes, but no study has evaluated provocative testing in a general seizure population. We studied consecutive patients with a tentative diagnosis of epilepsy using saline provocation during video–EEG recording, suggesting that this could produce a typical seizure. Of 52 patients, 40% had no response, 23% had responses unlike their seizures, and 37% had typical episodes (positive test). Patients whose usual episodes resembled complex partial seizures (CPS) were more likely to have NES than were patients with a history of generalized tonic-clonic seizures (GTC). Of patients with positive provocations, the primary physician predicted NES in 68% of cases. This preliminary study suggests that NES are frequent in a general neurology setting, and that saline provocation is a sensitive method of identifying NES.     

The frequency of non-epileptic spells in children: Results of video-EEG monitoring in a tertiary care center.

RATIONALE: The diagnosis of non-epileptic spells (NES) in children can be challenging, even for experienced clinicians. Our objective was to describe the characteristics of such events. METHODS: This was a retrospective study conducted from January 2004 to December 2006. Inclusion criteria were age >1 month and <18 years and the diagnosis of NES established by video-EEG monitoring. RESULTS: Among 746 monitored children (1203 recorded video-EEG sessions), 109 (14.6%) had NES. The mean age of patients with NES was 6.6 years (range 0.1-18). Seventy patients were diagnosed with NES alone; the remaining 39 with both NES and epilepsy. Developmental delay was more frequent among patients with a co-morbid diagnosis of epilepsy (p<0.001). Similar clinical events were reported in both of these groups, save for crying spells/irritability which was more common in children with epilepsy. Frequent manifestations of NES included staring spells in preschool children, crying/irritability, tremor and eye deviation in young children and preschoolers, and limb shaking in adolescents. All of the patients with epilepsy and 19 (27%) of those without epilepsy were receiving antiepileptic drugs. CONCLUSION: Our data highlights the importance of accurate diagnosis of NES toward the appropriate treatment of affected children.     

Psychogenic nonepileptic seizures are associated with an increased risk of obesity

Psychogenic nonepileptic seizures (NES) are somatic manifestations of psychological distress. There is some evidence that weight problems are more common in patients with psychiatric illness. We have observed that patients admitted for video-EEG monitoring who we diagnosed with NES commonly have a larger body habitus than patients with epilepsy. The goal of this study was to test our hypothesis that there was a significant difference in body mass index (BMI) in patients with nonepileptic seizures compared with their epileptic counterparts. We compared the BMIs of 46 NES patients and 46 age- and gender-matched epileptic controls and found that the NES patients had significantly higher BMIs (30.5 vs 26.1, P=0.006) than controls. This remained true after controlling for weight-gain properties of antiepileptic drugs. These results are compared with the prevalence of overweight and obesity in the general population. Possible explanations of the findings and limitations of the study are discussed.     

Seizures and epilepsy in elderly patients of an urban area of Iran: clinical manifestation, differential diagnosis, etiology, and epilepsy subtypes

The incidences of seizures and epilepsy in the population show a peak after 60 years of age. Due to the lack of reported clinical aspects of seizure and epilepsy in the older patients in our region in Iran, this study was conducted to describe the clinical manifestation, etiology, differential diagnosis, and epilepsy subtypes of epilepsy and seizure. A cross-sectional retrospective study was performed on all consecutively elderly seizure and epilepsy patients, referred to the Epilepsy Association in the city of Qom, Iran over a 10-year period. A total of 466 patients aged >60 years were admitted. 31 % of the patients had epilepsy or seizure and 69 % of them had non-epileptic events. The most prevalent differential diagnoses in the beginning were syncope and cardiovascular disorders. The most frequent clinical symptom of epilepsy was generalized tonic–clonic seizures (75 %). The most common cause of seizure was systemic metabolic disorder (27 %). In epileptic elderly patients, no cause was ascertained for 38 % and the most frequently observed pathological factors were cerebrovascular diseases, which accounted for 24 %. The most common type of epileptic seizure was generalized epileptic seizures (75 %). 10 % of elderly epileptic patients suffered from status epilepticus, which was primarily caused by anoxia. Despite the rising rate and potentially profound physical and psychosocial effects of seizures and epilepsy, these disorders have received surprisingly little research focus and attention in Iran. Referring older patients to a specialist or a specialist epilepsy center allows speedy assessment, appropriate investigation and treatment, and less likely to miss the diagnosis.