膀胱移行细胞癌组织中Caspase-3和Bcl—2蛋白的表达及其意义

目的：探讨Caspase3和Bcl2蛋白在膀胱移行细胞癌中的表达及其与病理分级和临床分期的关系。方法：采用免疫组化SABC法并结合图像分析方法检测32例膀胱移行细胞癌和10例膀胱正常组织中Caspase3和Bcl-2蛋白的表达。结果：Caspase-3和Bcl-2两种蛋白在膀胱移行细胞癌中的表达与正常膀胱组织之间都有显著性差异（P〈0．05）。Caspase-3与病理分级和临床分期均无显著性差异（P〉0．05）,Bcl-2与病理分级和临床分期均无显著性差异（P〉0．05）,Caspase-3和Bcl-2两者之间呈负相关（FS=-0．358,P〈0．05）。结论：在膀胱癌组织中Caspase3的表达降低和Bcl-2的表达升高可能与膀胱癌的发生发展有关。     

凋亡抑制因子Livin在膀胱移形细胞癌中的表达

目的检测抗凋亡（IAP）家族中Livin基因在膀胱移形细胞癌（BTCC）组织及癌旁组织的表达，探讨Livin的表达在膀胱癌发生发展中的意义。方法采用免疫组织化学和实时荧光定量逆转录．荧光定量聚合酶链反应（RT-QPCR）方法对30例膀胱癌患者中Livin基因在癌组织和癌旁组织中的表达进行检测。结果免疫染色标本中，在癌旁组织和膀胱癌组织中Livin的阳性表达率分别为0．60％。Livin在膀胱癌组织中的-△△CT值是癌旁组织的8．0454（7．4264—8．6644）倍，与分级和分期没有相关性。结论Livin基因在癌旁组织中有少量表达，而在BTCC组织中的表达量远远高于癌旁组织。     

凋亡相关蛋白Survivin及Caspase-3在膀胱移行细胞癌中表达及临床意义

目的：探讨凋亡相关蛋白Survivin及Caspase-3在膀胱移形细胞癌表达及其临床意义。方法：应用SP免疫组织化学法检测45例膀胱移行细胞癌及10例正常膀胱黏膜组织石蜡切片中Survivin和Caspase-3表达的情况,结合临床资料进行分析。结果：Survivin在膀胱移形细胞癌标本中的表达阳性率为68．9%（31/15）．而正常对照组中无一例呈阳性表达;Caspase-3在膀胱移行细胞癌标本中的表达阳性率为37．8%（17/45）．与对照组阳性率90％（9／10）相比差异有统计学意义（P〈O．05）。Survivin的表达与膀胱移行细胞癌的组织学分级、初发和复发显著相关（P〈O．05）,但与临床病理分期、肿瘤数日无关;Caspase-3的表达与膀胱移行细胞确的初发复发相关,但与组织学分级、肿瘤数目、临床分期均无关。相关性分析表明,膀胱移行细胞癌中Survivin的表达与Caspase-3表达呈负相关。结论：Survivin在膀胱癌组织中选择性表达与膀胱移行细胞癌的分化程度密切相关．Caspase-3蛋白在膀胱移行细胞癌中表达下降,Survivin及Caspase-3蛋白对于判断膀胱移行细胞确预后有重要临床指导意义。     

凋亡抑制基因survivin在膀胱癌组织中的表达

目的探讨新的凋亡抑制基因survivin在膀胱癌组织中的表达及其与膀胱癌生物学特性的相关性。方法应用免疫组织化学链霉素抗生物素蛋白-过氧化酶连接法（SP），检测survivin在42例膀胱癌组织、8例正常膀胱组织中的表达。结果Survivin在正常膀胱组织中不表达；42例膀胱癌组织有28例表达阳性，阳性率为66．7％。病理分级Ⅰ-Ⅲ级膀胱癌survivin阳性表达率分别为33．3％、76．2％、88．9％，差别有统计学意义（P〈0．05）；临床分期T1-T3膀胱癌的阳性表达率分别为60．9％（14／23）、66．7％（8／12）、85．7％（6／7），差别无统计学意义（P〉0．05）；无复发与有复发膀胱癌的阳性表达率分别为53．8％（14／26）、87．5%（14／16），差别有统计学意义（P〈0．05）。结论Survivin阳性表达引起的细胞凋亡抑制在膀胱癌的发生、发展中起一定作用，其过度表达可能提示膀胱癌预后不良。     

环氧合酶-2在膀胱癌中的表达及临床意义

目的检测环氧合酶-2（cyclooxygenase-2,COX～2）在膀胱移行细胞癌组织中的表达及其意义。方法采用免疫组化法检测50例膀胱癌组织和10例正常组织中COX-2蛋白的表达,并结合临床资料进行分析。结果正常组织中COX-2蛋白的表达水平明显低于肿瘤组织（P〈0．001）。G1级和G2～G3级膀胱癌中COX-2蛋白表达的阳性率分别为20％、60％,差异有统计学意义（P=0．022）。非肌层浸润性膀胱癌和浸润性膀胱癌中COX-2蛋白表达的阳性率为36．8％和83．3％,差异有统计学意义（P=0．005）。COX-2表达与患者的年龄、性别、肿瘤的数目及大小无明显相关性（P〉0．05）。结论COX-2在高分级膀胱移行细胞癌和侵袭性膀胱移行细胞癌中阳性表达率显著上升,表明COX-2可能在膀胱移行细胞癌的形成中起重要作用,有望为膀胱癌的靶向治疗提供新的途径。     

凋亡相关基因Survivin及Caspase-3 mRNA在膀胱移行细胞癌中的表达及其意义

目的探讨凋亡相关基因survivin及Caspase-3 mRNA的表达与膀胱移行细胞癌发生及发展的关系。方法应用逆转录-聚合酶链式反应（RT-PCR）检测33例膀胱移行细胞癌组织中survivin和Caspase-3 mRNA表达的情况，结合临床资料进行分析。结果93．9％（31／33）的肿瘤组织可检测到survivin mRNA表达，而对照组全部阴性表达，二者有统计学意义；81．8％（27／33）的肿瘤标本可检出Caspase-3 mRNA，而对照组中检出率为80％（8／10），实验组与对照组间无明显差异。在Ⅲ级膀胱移行细胞癌中survivin mRNA的表达强度较Ⅰ级为高，二者间有统计学意义（P〈0．05）。survivin和Caspase-3的表达与肿瘤的临床分期无关（P〉0．05）。结论survivin mRNA在膀胱移行细胞癌中有特异性表达，其高表达提示肿瘤分化不良。阻断suvivin mRNA的表达可能为膀胱肿瘤的治疗提供新的途径。     

上皮钙黏附素和树突细胞在膀胱癌中的表达及其意义

目的探讨膀胱癌中上皮钙黏附素（E—cd）和树突细胞（DC）的表达及其与生物学行为的关系。方法免疫组织化学检测采用链霉素一生物素（LSAB）免疫酶染色法，对65例膀胱癌手术切除标本中的E—cd、DC的表达进行了对照检测，染色时用已知E—cd和S100阳性的正常膀胱黏膜及膀胱肌层内神经作阳性对照，用PBS取代一抗作阴性对照。结果65例膀胱癌中33例E—cd正常表达（50．8％），20例DC正常表达（30．8％），E—cd正常表达率在Ⅰ、Ⅱ和Ⅲ级肿瘤中分别为70．1％、66．6％和25．9％，在T^is-1期和T2-4期肿瘤中分别为80．6％和23．5％；DC正常表达率在Ⅰ、Ⅱ和Ⅲ级肿瘤中分别为76．5％、33．3％和0，在Tis-1期和T2—4期肿瘤中分别为63．3％和2．7％。在不同病理分级和临床分期的膀胱癌中，E—cd和DC的正常表达率差异有统计学意义（P〈0．05）。结论E—cd和DC的正常表达率均随膀胱癌的病理分级、临床分期的上升而下降，E—cd和DC正常表达者的肿瘤复发率和死亡率均显著低于异常表达表。E—cd和DC可作为预测膀胱癌生物学行为的指标之一。     

糖蛋白(MUC1与MUC7)基因在膀胱移行细胞癌的表达研究

目的 探讨糖蛋白MUC1与MUC7基因在膀胱移行细胞癌（BTCC）组织及细胞株中的表达及意义。方法 采用MUC1与MUC7特异性巢式逆转录-聚合酶链反应（RT—PCR）对分离的4种组织标本及3种细胞株的mRNA样本进行检测。结果 所有4种组织标本及3种膀胱癌细胞株的MUC1基因表达均为阳性。MUC7基因表达仅见于3种膀胱癌细胞株和侵袭性移行细胞癌标本。半定量结果显示MUC1 mRNA基因表达在正常膀胱黏膜同腺性膀胱炎及各期膀胱癌之间差异有统计学意义（P〈0．05）。浅表性膀胱癌与侵袭性膀胱癌之间差异有统计学意义（P〈0．05）。不同细胞系BIU-87与T24之间表达差异无统计学意义（P〉0．05），耐药细胞株BIU-87／A同敏感细胞株BIU-87与T24之间表达差异有统计学意义（P〈0．05）。MUC7 mRNA基因表达在3种细胞株及侵袭性膀胱癌组织之间差异无统计学意义（P〉0．05）。结论 MUC1基因的上调表达与MUC7基因的差异性表达可能影响膀胱癌细胞的生物学行为，导致相应的临床后果-恶性转变、侵袭转移、耐药。MUC7基因表达是尿路上皮恶性侵袭性转化的开始。     

E2F-1、E2F-3在膀胱癌组织的表达及临床意义

目的：探讨膀胱癌转录因子E2F-1、E2F-3的表达及临床意义。方法：应用免疫组织化学方法检测39例膀胱癌与12例正常膀胱粘膜中E2F-1、E2F-3的表达,以统计学方法分析其表达与肿瘤分级、分期、复发之间的关系。结果：E2F-1在膀胱癌组织与正常膀胱粘膜中的阳性表达率分别为82．1％（32／39）和41．7％（5／12）,差异有统计学意义（P〈0．05）。癌组织E2F-1的表达在不同的临床病理特征之间差异无显著性;E2F-3在膀胱癌组织与正常膀胱粘膜中的阳性表达率分别为53．8％（21／39）和91．7％（11／12）,差异有显著性（P〈0．05）。癌组织中E2F-3的表达在不同的分级、分期之间差异有显著性（P〈0．05）。结论：E2F的异常表达参与膀胱癌的发病过程,并可在一定程度上反映肿瘤的恶性程度。     

Survivin与Caspase--3及相关性研究在胆管细胞癌中的表达

目的探讨Survivin和Caspase－3在胆管细胞癌中的表达及相互关系。方法用免疫组化S-P法分别检测Survivin和CasDase－3在胆管细胞癌、癌旁组织及正常胆管组织中的表达。结果①Survivin在胆管细胞癌中的表达显著高于癌旁组织和正常胆管组织（P〈0.01）；Caspase－3在胆管细胞癌中的表达显著低于癌旁组织和正常胆管组织（P〈0．01）。②在胆管细胞癌中，Survivin的表达随着肿瘤分化程度的降低而增强（rs=0．404，P〈0．01）．Caspase-3的表达随着肿瘤分化程度的降低而减弱（rs=-0．389，R0．05）。③Survivin和Caspase-3在胆管细胞癌中的表达呈负相关（rs=-0．765，P〈0．01）。结论Survivin的高表达和Caspase-3的失表达抑制了胆管细胞癌细胞的凋亡。可能与胆管细胞癌细胞的生长有关；Survivin和Caspase-3表达的负相关性反映了Survivin抑制Caspase-3介导的细胞凋亡，可能与癌细胞的发生发展有密切关系。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.