急性冠状动脉综合征合并慢性肾脏病患者

慢性肾脏病(CKD)是心血管疾病(CVD)的独立危险因素,而CVD也是CKD死亡的最主要原因。由于 肾脏病患者出血风险增加,使得针对急性冠状动脉综合征(ACS)治疗的基础药物及治疗措施使用率降低,尤其是进行 早期经皮冠状动脉介入术的治疗率低,进而使得ACS合并CKD的发病率及病死率增高。本文就ACS合并CKD的 发病机制、临床特点及治疗策略作一综述。     

The role of renin–angiotensin– aldosterone system inhibition in chronic kidney disease

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is emerging as a new health pandemic. Underlying the global rise in CKD is an increase in diabetes, hypertension and other cardiovascular risk factors leading to progressive renal dysfunction. Emerging evidence strongly suggests that achieving target blood pressure goals via inhibition of the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system confers significant renal and cardioprotection for patients with CKD. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) and angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) lower blood pressure, reduce proteinuria and reduce both the progression of CKD and adverse cardiovascular events. The role of aldosterone inhibition and combination therapy, such as ACEI/ARB, in CKD are under investigation. As our understanding of the basic mechanisms underlying CKD progression advances, novel therapies targeting post-translational endothelial and mesangial messengers downstream from angiotensin II and aldosterone may become available for clinical use.     

Clinical epidemiology of cardiovascular disease in chronic kidney disease

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the most common cause of death in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and end-stage renal disease (ESRD). The clinical epidemiology of CVD in CKD is challenging due to a prior lack of standardized definitions of CKD, inconsistent measures of renal function, and possible alternative effects of 'traditional' CVD risk factors in patients with CKD. These challenges add to the complexity of the role of renal impairment as the cause or the consequence of cardiovascular disease. The goal of this review is to summarize the current evidence on: (1) the incidence and prevalence of CVD in chronic renal insufficiency and in ESRD, (2) risk factors for CVD in CKD, (3) the outcomes of patients with renal failure with CVD, and (4) CKD as a risk factor for CVD. The epidemiological associations implicating the huge burden of CVD throughout all stages of CKD highlight the need to better understand and implement adequate screening, and diagnostic and treatment strategies.     

The role of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibition in chronic kidney disease

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is emerging as a new health pandemic. Underlying the global rise in CKD is an increase in diabetes, hypertension and other cardiovascular risk factors leading to progressive renal dysfunction. Emerging evidence strongly suggests that achieving target blood pressure goals via inhibition of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system confers significant renal and cardioprotection for patients with CKD. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) and angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) lower blood pressure, reduce proteinuria and reduce both the progression of CKD and adverse cardiovascular events. The role of aldosterone inhibition and combination therapy, such as ACEI/ARB, in CKD are under investigation. As our understanding of the basic mechanisms underlying CKD progression advances, novel therapies targeting post-translational endothelial and mesangial messengers downstream from angiotensin II and aldosterone may become available for clinical use.     

Cardiovascular Screening and Early Detection of Heart Disease in Adults With Chronic Kidney Disease

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) and chronic kidney disease (CKD) are among the most common disease states that nurse practitioners encounter in various health care settings. In many cases, patients with CVD and CKD have overlapping risk factors and underlying medical conditions. CVD is one of the most common causes of death in patients with CKD, and therefore, appropriate recognition and screening are important for preventing disease progression and complications. Nurse practitioners can become familiar with various risk factors, screen patients, and provide nonpharmacologic and pharmacologic measures for CVD in CKD patients.     

Cardiovascular disease and the kidney. Tracking a killer in chronic kidney disease

The interlinking of CVD with CKD is undeniable. CVD accounts for more than 50% of all morbidity and mortality in patients with kidney disease who have undergone renal replacement therapy, and CVD is also prevalent in patients with mild and moderately severe kidney disease. To help address the elevated risks of these patients, primary care physicians need to maintain vigilance in (1) identifying patients who have CKD and (2) implementing strategies for reducing the prevalence of CVD in this population. It is essential that patients be screened for relatively mild kidney disease by measurement of serum creatinine and urine microalbumin and by calculation of the glomerular filtration rate in mL/min/1.73 m2 using equations based on serum creatinine. Rigorous assessment of conventional risk factors, including dyslipidemia, hypertension, and diabetes, is also necessary to prevent the poor outcomes currently observed in persons with CKD. Routine use of ACE inhibitors and aspirin is encouraged in all patients with CKD, and strict glycemic and blood pressure control is recommended for optimal outcomes. In addition, patients should be screened and treated for risk factors particularly associated with kidney disease and CVD morbidity and mortality, including anemia, hyperphosphatemia, and hyperparathyroidism. Finally, physicians should be careful to avoid therapeutic nihilism in patients with kidney disease; those at highest risk of CVD are likely to receive the greatest benefit from cardiovascular therapies.     

Chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease: a case presentation.

This is the third in a series of three articles examining cardiovascular disease (CVD) in the patient with chronic kidney disease (CKD). CVD is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in patients with CKD, including those in the early stages. Early diagnosis of CKD and recognition of both traditional and nontraditional renal-related CVD risk factors are vital in improving outcomes for this population. Care of the patient with CKD should center on reduction of both types of risk factors for CVD. The ANNA Nephrology Nursing Standards of Practice and Guidelines for Care provide the basis for planning and providing care for patients with CKD and for reducing the risk of CVD in this patient population.     

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) as an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD)

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) has been shown to be an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD) in a number of recent epidemiological studies. There are possible explanations for the independent association of CKD with CVD. Reduced renal function is associated with a high prevalence of traditional CVD risk factors, such as hypertension, diabetes, dyslipidemia, and left ventricular hypertrophy. In addition, reduced renal function may be associated with increased levels of nontraditional risk factors, such as inflammation and oxidative stress. Subjects with CKD should be considered a high-risk population for CVD and be recommended for more intensive preventive management of CVD, including active detection and strict treatment of CVD risk factors.     

Should eGFR and albuminuria be added to the Framingham risk score? Chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease risk prediction

Presence of chronic kidney disease (CKD) defined as decreased glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and/or increased urine albumin excretion is associated with heightened risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and all-cause as well as CVD mortality. Although CKD is strongly linked with CVD, it remains undetermined whether this strong association is simply due to shared CVD risk factors or unique traits consequential to CKD. The probability of future CVD events can be estimated with reasonable accuracy using the Framingham equation which was derived from the Framingham study, a community-based cohort of 5,209 white adults aged 30-62 years who were first examined in 1948. Efforts to capture excess CVD risk associated with CKD have been evaluated by adding estimated GFR, cystatin C, serum creatinine and measures of urinary albumin excretion to the Framingham equation which is based on traditional cardiovascular risk factors. Although decreased GFR and increased urine albumin excretion are consistently associated with cardiovascular outcomes, the addition of these factors to the Framingham equation has not been shown to substantially improve overall CVD risk prediction in populations not enriched with CKD. Moreover, the Framingham equation itself underpredicts cardiovascular events among adults with stage 3 and 4 CKD without clinical CVD. Given the poor performance of the Framingham equation in adults with CKD, future studies should explore risk equations which include traditional CVD risk factors and the unique comorbidities associated with CKD for prediction of cardiovascular events in adults with CKD.     

Hypertension complicated with chronic kidney disease

Hypertension causes exacerbation of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and vice versa. CKD has been known as an independent risk factor for death from cardiovascular disease (CVD). Proteinuria and albuminuria indicate progressive kidney injury and are risk factors for end-stage renal disease(ESRD). Corrections of blood pressure and proteinuria or albuminuria reduce the risk of occurrence of CVD and progression to ESRD. Antihypertensive therapy in CKD includes the management of salt sensitivity and renin angiotensin system. Diuretics more effectively contribute to the balance of sodium and volume of water, when used with ACE inhibitor and ARB. Direct renin inhibitor has been available and shown potential to be a first choice for the treatment of hypertension in CKD.     

CKD非透析患者CVD的发生情况及影响因素分析

目的研究慢性肾脏病（CKD）非透析患心血管疾病（CVD）的发生情况及危险因素。方法分析695例cKD非透析患者基础资料、实验室指标、心脏彩色超声指标及其与既往CVD病史之间的关系,研究CKD非透析患者CVD的发生情况,探讨与其相关的危险因素。结果695例患者中226例（32．5％）有CVD既往史,Logistic回归分析显示,年龄、GFR、SBP、DBP、颈总动脉内径、颈总动脉IMT及分叉部IMT是cKD非透析患者CVD的独立危险因素。结论cKD非透析患者CVD的发生率较正常人显著升高,年龄、高血压、脂质代谢紊乱、微炎症状态、贫血、低蛋白血症、钙磷代谢紊乱等因素与CKD患者CVD的发生、发展密切相关。     

Abnormalities in renal hemodynamics

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a major risk factor for the development of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Abnormalities of renal hemodynamics are associated with CKD. Abnormalities in renal hemodynamics include blood flow into glomeruli, and tubulointerstitial tissue. Renin-angiotensin system, oxidative stress and NOS system affect abnormalities of renal hemodynamics in CKD. Further, intrarenal hemodynamic abnormalities are strongly associated with systemic arteriosclerosis. Appropriate regulation of renal hemodynamics and controls of hypertension and diabetes mellitus retard the progression of both CKD and CVD.     

慢性肾脏疾病患者血清IL-2水平及其临床意义

目的 :探讨检测慢性肾脏疾病 (CKD)患者血清白细胞介素 - 2 (IL - 2 )水平的临床意义。方法 :CKD 6 6例。正常对照组 2 0例。用放射免疫法测定血清IL - 2水平。常规检测其他相关临床指标。分析血清IL - 2水平与肾功能、心血管病变及其他临床资料 (包括血脂、钙磷等 )的关系。结果 :(1)肾功能 3、4、5级患者血清IL - 2水平较正常对照组及肾功能 2级显著升高 (均P <0 .0 5 ) ,相关分析结果表明 ,CKD患者血清IL - 2水平与Scr呈显著正相关 (r=0 .4 4 5 ,P <0 .0 5 ) ,与Ccr呈显著负相关 (r =- 0 .30 1,P <0 .0 5 ) ;(2 )有心血管病变组血清IL - 2水平显著升高于无心血管病变组 (P <0 .0 0 3) ,高血清IL - 2组心血管病变发生率显著高于正常血清IL - 2组 (P <0 .0 1) ;(3) 4 0例肾功能 2～ 5级的CKD患者血清IL - 2水平与甘油三酯、低密度脂蛋白胆固醇、磷呈显著正相关 (P <0 .0 5 ) ,与血钙呈显著负相关 (P <0 .0 1) ,与年龄、病程、血压、总胆固醇、高密度脂蛋白胆固醇、血红蛋白、白蛋白无显著相关 (P >0 .0 5 ) ,进一步逐步回归分析示血清IL - 2水平依次与血钙、内生肌酐清除率、甘油三酯关系最为密切。结论 :CKD患者血清IL - 2水平升高 ,这可能与肾功能减退时严重代谢紊乱 (包括高脂、低钙等 )引起的T细胞     

Africa and nephrology: the forgotten continent

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is not a priority on the health agenda in Africa and it remains a 'forgotten condition'. Most people in Africa do not have access to dialysis or transplantation, if they develop end-stage renal disease. Cardiovascular disease (CVD) and HIV/AIDS enjoy a more prominent profile as a serious cause of morbidity and mortality, but despite the clear links of CVD and HIV with CKD, there has been a failure to highlight the link between chronic illnesses like diabetes, hypertension and HIV/AIDS and both CKD and CVD. Management of chronic illnesses requires a functioning public health system and good links between primary and specialist care. Despite calls to establish CKD prevention programs, there are very few in Africa and they have not been integrated into existing primary healthcare systems. This is aggravated by shortages of both financial and human resources and failure to strengthen health systems managing chronic diseases. The result is that very few people in Africa with CKD are managed early or receive dialysis or transplantation. This article investigates some of the issues impacting on the recognition of CKD as a public health issue, and will also consider some factors which could make CKD a more prominent chronic disease in Africa.     

Multiple risk factor intervention in chronic kidney disease: management of cardiac disease in chronic kidney disease patients

This article describes the relationship between CVD and CKD, the current state of knowledge regarding medical interventions, and underscores the importance of attending to both CVD and kidney disease aspects in each individual. The burden of cardiac disease in CKD patients is high with severe LVH, dilated cardiomyopathy and coronary artery disease occurring frequently. This predisposes to congestive heart failure, angina, myocardial infarction, and death. Multiple risk factors for cardiac disease exist and include hypertension, diabetes, smoking, anemia, abnormal calcium and phosphate metabolism, inflammation, and LVH. The efficacy of risk factor intervention has not been established in these populations, although there is good evidence for good blood pressure control, partial correction of anemia, treatment of dyslipidemia, cessation of tobacco use, correction of divalent abnormalities, and aspirin us. Appropriate use of ACE inhibitors, beta-blockers, and statins should be encouraged.     

Cardiovascular disease in chronic kidney disease: untying the Gordian knot

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) affects around 10–13% of the general population, with only a small proportion in end stage renal disease (ESRD), either on dialysis or awaiting renal transplantation. It is well documented that CKD patients have an extremely high risk of developing cardiovascular disease (CVD) compared with the general population, so much so that in the early stages of CKD patients are more likely to develop CVD than they are to progress to ESRD. Various pathophysiological pathways and explanations have been advanced and suggested to account for this, including endothelial dysfunction, dyslipidaemia, inflammation, left ventricular hypertrophy and cardiac autonomic dysfunction. In this review, we try to understand and further explore the link between CKD and CVD, as well as offering interventional advice where available, while exposing the current lack of RCT‐based research and trial evidence in this area. We also suggest pragmatic Interim measures we could take while we wait for definitive RCTs.     

Traditional and nontraditional cardiovascular risk factors in chronic kidney disease

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is public health problem, with as many as 20 million individuals affected in the United States. Patients with CKD should be considered in the highest-risk group for development of cardiovascular disease (CVD), and aggressive treatment of traditional and nontraditional risk factors should be instituted. Additional randomized controlled trials are urgently needed to evaluate potential treatments in this population. This article focuses attention on the major modifiable cardiovascular risk factors in CKD.     

Dyslipidemia as a therapeutic target for prevention of cardiovascular events and end-stage renal disease

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is an important risk factor for end-stage renal disease (ESRD) and cardiovascular events as well. Early-onset and progressive atherosclerosis is common in patients with CKD, which is caused by varieties of factors including dyslipidemia. CKD-related dyslipidemia such as increased triglyceride-rich atherogenic lipoproteins such IDL, small dense LDL and low HDL associated with insulin resistance, oxidative stress, inflammation, and malnutrition co-existing dyslipidemia such as high LDL are both causetive for early-onset atherogenesis and, possibly progression of CKD, thus are the therapeutic targets in early intervention of CKD. Life-style modification aimed for both renoprotection and anti-dyslipidemia as well as medications for metabolic disorders in CKD patients such as Ca/P imbalance is crucial for correction of dyslipidemia, and also prevention of cardiovasclular events and ESRD in CKD patients. Among anti-dyslipidemic drugs, statin, so far, is only class of drug proved to be effective for such purpose on evidence-basis.     

Chronic kidney disease and atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is common in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD), and cardiovascular disease (CVD) represents a major cause of death in these patients, especially, in patients with end-stage renal disease(ESRD). The pathological features in ESRD patients are intimal atherosclerosis and medial calcific sclerosis. The important risk factors for CVD in ESRD patients are hypertension, dyslipidemia and CKD bone and mineral disorder (CKD-MBD). Atherosclerosis has been evaluated by measurements of intima-media thickness and pulse-wave velocity. Although the target blood pressure still undetermined, hypertension would be treated with renin-angiotensin system inhibitors. In addition, treatment of dyslipidemia with statins may lead to favorable CVD outcome. Finally, inhibition of vascular calcification should be important by treatment with active vitamin D and sevelamer.