妊娠合并自身免疫性1型糖尿病对母胎的影响及诊治

妊娠合并自身免疫性1型糖尿病是孕期常见的合并症之一,可导致母儿并发症增加。文章介绍了妊娠合并自身免疫性1型糖尿病的筛查和诊断标准,提出做好充足的孕前准备,加强孕期监护,应用饮食控制以及胰岛素注射使血糖降至理想状态可降低母儿并发症,改善妊娠结局。     

血糖控制不佳与不良妊娠结局

妊娠期高血糖是最常见的一种妊娠并发症。孕期血糖控制不佳,会增加不良妊娠结局的发生,包括近远期的各种母儿风险。文章拟通过介绍血糖控制不佳与不良妊娠结局的关系,提高医护人员和妊娠合并糖尿病患者对妊娠期高血糖危害的认识。     

《中国实用妇科与产科杂志》2017年第3期中心内容预告

<正>中心内容:内科疾病产科认识和风险防范内科疾病产科识别和风险防范孕前糖尿病围孕期咨询和评估及降糖药应用颅内病变孕期评估和管理高血压患者孕前和孕期风险评估及处理心脏病患者妊娠期心血管不良事件预测和预防血液系统疾病孕前评估及孕期管理妊娠期甲状腺疾病监测与处理风湿免疫性疾病母婴不良结局监测和防范妊娠合并主动脉瘤早期识别及处理妊娠期蛋白尿不仅是子痫前期     

2022年中国妊娠期高血糖诊治指南与美国糖尿病学会妊娠合并糖尿病诊治指南比较

在全球范围内，妊娠合并糖尿病/妊娠期高血糖的发病率不断攀升，不仅增加围生期母儿不良结局的风险，而且增加母体和子代远期患代谢性疾病的风险。对妊娠合并糖尿病的诊治目前各国仍存在诸多争议。2022年我国中华医学会（Chinese Medical Association，CMA）、2021年美国糖尿病学会（American Diabetes Association，ADA）分别发布了最新指南，目的在于为妊娠合并糖尿病的诊断和治疗提供最新建议，现就两份指南在疾病分类、诊断、孕前咨询及孕前保健、生活方式和行为管理、妊娠期降糖药物治疗、血糖的监测、母儿并发症、产后管理与产后随访、产科管理这9个方面进行对比解读，探寻两份指南间异同的可能原因，为临床医生的实践提供参考。     

糖尿病史女性孕前管理

有糖尿病史的女性,如果孕前血糖没有得到良好的控制,妊娠后其母儿合并症和并发症发生率明显升高。重视糖尿病史女性的孕前咨询、孕前监测和评估并进行孕前干预是获得良好妊娠结局的关键。文章结合国内外指南,详细阐述糖尿病史女性的孕前管理方案,为临床工作提供参考。     

进一步提高对妊娠合并糖尿病的研究水平

妊娠合并糖尿病是妊娠期最常见的内科合并症之一,它包括孕前患有糖尿病者妊娠（pre-gestational diabetes mellitus,PGDM,一般称之为糖尿病合并妊娠）和妊娠期糖尿病（gestational diabetes mellitus, GDM）.妊娠合并糖尿病会导致母儿并发症明显增加. 自胰岛素在临床开始应用之后，通过严格控制糖尿病孕妇的血糖，加强孕期监测，妊娠合并糖尿病的母儿预后均有了明显改善，20世纪80年代初国外已经有报道，如果将孕期血糖控制到正常范围，围产儿死亡率就能够降低到同孕龄而糖代谢正常孕妇的水平。     

妊娠期糖尿病健康生活方式管理

妊娠期糖尿病是妊娠期常见并发症,生活方式干预是妊娠期糖尿病的重要治疗措施。规范、专业、多学科团队协作的孕期健康生活方式管理有助于调控血糖,改善妊娠期糖尿病不良妊娠结局及母儿预后。     

妊娠合并糖尿病的孕期处理

妊娠合并糖尿病属于高危妊娠.妊娠期糖尿病控制不良可并发糖尿病酮症酸中毒昏迷以及糖尿病高渗性昏迷等,在胰岛素问世前孕产妇病死率高达30%左右,围生儿病死率超过500‰;由于围生医学和糖尿病治疗的进展,以及胰岛素的应用,极大地降低了孕产妇的病死率,围生儿病死率也明显地降低到50‰左右.由于妊娠合并糖尿病对母儿的危害较大,不但孕前要作好筛查,对严重糖尿病伴有心血管病变者则不宜妊娠,而孕期则需加强监护与治疗.孕期对糖尿病的治疗原则如下:     

妊娠合并糖尿病的处理(一)

妊娠合并糖尿病发病率为 2 %～ 5 % [1 ] ,是严重危害母儿健康的妊娠合并症 ,在 192 1年胰岛素发明前 ,胎儿、新生儿死亡率高达 6 5 %。随着胰岛素的发明以及围产期母儿监护手段的进展 ,当前在一些发达国家围产儿死亡率已降至 2 %～5 % [2 ] 。我们曾对 6 6例妊娠合并糖尿病的病例进行统计。如果能在早期给予积极的治疗 ,血糖水平控制在正常水平达 3个月以上 ,其尿路感染、妊娠高血压综合征、剖宫产率均明显低于未控制组 ,且死胎、死亡率明显下降。由此可见 ,对妊娠合并糖尿病给予积极合理的治疗将直接改变妊娠的结局 ,保证母儿孕期、分娩前…     

妊娠合并系统性红斑狼疮患者孕期并发症及妊娠结局的临床分析

目的分析并探讨系统性红斑狼疮(SLE)患者的孕期并发症情况及妊娠结局。方法回顾性分析2000年1月至2010年3月北京大学人民医院收治的19例妊娠合并SLE患者的临床资料,对影响SLE合并妊娠并发症的相关因素和SLE不同妊娠时机的妊娠结局进行分析。结果 19例患者中11例(11/19,57.9%)出现了母儿并发症,4例重度子痫前期,1例流产,2例死胎,2例足月低出生体重,4例早产。无并发症组8例,两组患者的孕产次及孕前病程、分娩方式无明显差异,但无并发症组患者的年龄小于并发症组,分娩孕周明显延长,新生儿体重明显增加,两组差异有统计学意义(P=0.006);孕前病情的稳定程度对孕期母儿并发症的影响差异无统计学意义(P=0.633);但妊娠前病情稳定大于6个月的患者出现并发症的比例较低(6/12,50.0%vs5/7,71.4%)。3例妊娠期间诊断SLE的患者均在孕期或产后出现了严重的并发症,1例(1/3,33.3%)新生儿诊断为SLE;与孕前病情控制平稳6个月的患者相比,分娩孕周较小,新生儿体重较低(P0.05)。结论 SLE患者即使孕前病情控制平稳,妊娠后仍有可能出现严重的母儿并发症。在病情控制平稳后妊娠,孕期在产科和风湿科医师的共同严密监测下,坚持治疗,适时终止妊娠是改善母婴结局的关键。同时应注意提高对妊娠期SLE的诊断。     

Low gestational weight gain improves infant and maternal pregnancy outcomes in overweight and obese Korean women with gestational diabetes mellitus

Objective.?The aim of the study was to retrospectively assess what was the optimal gestational weight gain to have better maternal and neonatal outcomes in overweight and obese Korean women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) who maintained normoglycemia throughout pregnancy by dietary modification, exercise, and/or insulin treatment.

Study design.?We performed a hospital-based study of 215 GDM women with prepregnancy BMI?≥?25 kg/m². Body weight, glucose homeostasis, lipid profiles, insulin treatment, and maternal outcomes were collected as predictors of neonatal birth weight. We divided the subjects into three groups according to modified Institute of Medicine (IOM) guidelines for weight gain during pregnancy: inadequate (n?=?42), normal (n?=?96), and excessive (n?=?77) groups.

Results.?Excessive weight gain resulted in increased macrosomia, HbA_1c at delivery, and postprandial blood glucose levels, but fasting blood glucose levels were not significantly different among the groups. The inadequate weight gain group (2.4?kg weight gain during pregnancy) had better neonatal outcomes and better maternal glycemic control with fewer requiring insulin treatment.

Conclusion.?Minimal weight gain, well below IOM recommendations, and tight control of blood glucose levels during pregnancy with proper medical management and dietary modification may eliminate most of the adverse pregnancy outcomes experienced by obese GDM Asian women.     

Management of Pregnancy Complicated by Diabetes: Experience with 232 Patients in a 4-year Period

Two hundred and thirty two women with diabetes complicating pregnancy were seen at a metropolitan teaching hospital during a 4-year period. Management during pregnancy in insulin dependent diabetics was directed towards strict metabolic control using conventional insulin regimens and diet. A similar programme was followed for women in whom screening revealed glucose intolerance. Control of maternal blood glucose levels, assessment of fetal maturity and modes of delivery were reviewed in an attempt to define factors which could predict optimal neonatal outcome. Patients with insulin dependent diabetes were less likely to have optimal metabolic control both during pregnancy and parturition than patients with gestational diabetes. Women with gestational, but not preexisting diabetes, demonstrated a close correlation between gestational age and parameters of fetal pulmonary maturity. A high rate of intervention to deliver infants in both groups (50%) was noted. These data indicate the need for meticulous care of women with insulin dependent diabetes during pregnancy.     

Gestational diabetes mellitus and pregnancy outcomes among Chinese and South Asian women in Canada

Objective: To determine the association between Chinese or South Asian ethnicity and adverse neonatal and maternal outcomes for women with gestational diabetes compared to the general population. Methods: A cohort study was conducted using population-based health care databases in Ontario, Canada. All 35,577 women aged 15–49 with gestational diabetes who had live births between April 2002 and March 2011 were identified. Their delivery hospitalization records and the birth records of their neonates were examined to identify adverse neonatal outcomes and adverse maternal outcomes. Results: Compared to infants of mothers from the general population (55.5%), infants of Chinese mothers had a lower risk of an adverse outcome at delivery (42.9%, adjusted odds ratio 0.63, 95% confidence interval 0.58–0.68), whereas infants of South Asian mothers had a higher risk (58.9%, adjusted odds ratio 1.15, 95% confidence interval 1.07–1.23). Chinese women also had a lower risk of adverse maternal outcomes (32.4%, adjusted odds ratio 0.58, 95% confidence interval 0.54–0.63) compared to general population women (41.2%), whereas the risk for South Asian women was not different (39.4%, adjusted odds ratio 0.94, 95% confidence interval 0.88–1.02) from that of general population women. Conclusions: The risk of complications of gestational diabetes differs significantly between Chinese and South Asian patients and the general population in Ontario. Tailored interventions for gestational diabetes management may be required to improve pregnancy outcomes in high-risk ethnic groups.     

Gestational diabetes: screening,diagnosis, treatment and management

Gestational diabetes (GDM) is a common medical condition in pregnancy, and is associated with a range of short and long term maternal and infant complications including pre-eclampsia, pre-term birth, caesarean section, stillbirth, macrosomia and large-for-gestational age, neonatal hypoglycaemia, and increased risk of later type 2 diabetes in both mother and offspring. The incidence of complications can be reduced and pregnancy outcomes for these women are generally good with effective management of hyperglycaemia using regular monitoring of blood glucose, antenatal care with a multidisciplinary team, diet and lifestyle intervention, and pharmacotherapy. Risk of recurrence in future pregnancies, and of later development of type 2 diabetes is high in women with GDM. Attention should be given to screening and reducing risk in women who have experienced GDM, with encouragement of breastfeeding, diet and lifestyle intervention, weight management, and possibly metformin.     

Oral hypoglycaemic agents during pregnancy: The evidence for effectiveness and safety

With the increase in obesity and sedentary lifestyles, the incidence of diabetes among reproductive-aged women is rising globally. Providers are expected to care for a growing number of women with gestational diabetes (GDM) in the coming decades. Traditionally, insulin has been considered the standard for management of GDM, when diet and exercise fail to achieve tight maternal glucose control without the risk of transfer of insulin across the placenta. Understanding the effectiveness and safety of the use of oral diabetes agents during pregnancy for both maternal and neonatal outcomes as an alternative management option is essential to the care of women with GDM and their offspring. In this review, our objectives were to (1) summarise the available evidence on the efficacy these medications, (2) review available data on adverse effect, (3) discuss current gaps in research, outlining limitations in current study designs that deserve attention and (4) summarise key points for the practicing clinician.     

Screening for gestational diabetes: the effect of varying blood glucose definitions in the prediction of adverse maternal and infant health outcomes

BACKGROUND: Impaired glucose tolerance in pregnancy and gestational diabetes are associated with increased maternal and fetal risks. There is considerable uncertainty in the literature relating to the merits of screening for gestational diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance, and variable definitions in the cut-off values to be used. AIMS: To assess different levels of glucose intolerance in predicting adverse pregnancy outcomes. METHODS: Retrospective cohort study involving screening pregnant women with a 50-g oral glucose load, followed by a formal 75-g oral glucose tolerance test for women who screened positive (defined as a plasma glucose level > or = 7.8 mmol/L). Plasma glucose results were correlated with pregnancy and birth outcomes, and receiver-operator curves were constructed. RESULTS: A total of 16,975 women were screened with a glucose challenge test, with pregnancy outcome information available for 1804 women who screened positive on glucose challenge test. With increasing plasma glucose values, there was a significant increase in pre-eclampsia, Caesarean section, shoulder dystocia and neonatal hypoglycaemia. CONCLUSIONS: The risk of adverse maternal and infant pregnancy outcomes increases with increasing levels of glucose impairment despite treatment.     

孕前糖尿病围孕期咨询和评估及降糖药应用

孕前糖尿病占所有妊娠合并糖尿病的5%~10%,妊娠前咨询内容包括了解血糖水平、评估慢性并发症及合并症以确定合适的妊娠时机。资料表明,相对比较安全的孕期口服降糖药是格列本脲和二甲双胍,目前仍推荐孕期使用胰岛素控制血糖。     

Common Sleep Disorders: Management Strategies and Pregnancy Outcomes

Sleep disorders, prevalent in industrialized countries, are associated with adverse health outcomes such as hypertension, diabetes, and obesity. Disturbed sleep during pregnancy is frequently overlooked by health care providers, yet recent studies suggest there is an association between sleep disorders and adverse pregnancy outcomes, including preeclampsia, elevated serum glucose, depression, prolonged labor, and cesarean birth. Growing evidence indicates that the recognition and management of prenatal sleep disorders may minimize adverse pregnancy outcomes and improve maternal and fetal well‐being. This focused review of prenatal sleep disturbance literature suggests there are 3 main sleep disorders of interest: breathing‐related sleep disorders (ie, habitual snoring and obstructive sleep apnea), restless legs syndrome, and insomnia. These sleep disorders are common in pregnancy and have maternal and fetal consequences if left untreated. This article describes sleep disorders of pregnancy, elucidates their relationship with maternal and neonatal outcomes, and presents current evidence regarding diagnostic and management strategies.     

Insulins and oral hypoglycemic agents in pregnancy

Numerous studies have established a direct relationship between maternal levels of glycemic control and neonatal outcomes for pregnancies complicated by diabetes. The past several years have seen the addition of insulin analogues as well as many new oral agents to the pharmacological armamentarium available to treat diabetes. Insulin analogs (both rapid and long acting) are of potential interest for women with insulin-requiring diabetes because of the improved control reported in non-pregnant individuals. Insulin lispro is the only insulin analog to be systematically studied in pregnancy. At this time, the majority of evidence suggests that insulin lispro does not cross the placenta and does not have adverse maternal or fetal effects during pregnancy in women with diabetes.

For women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and type 2 diabetes, which are characterized by insulin resistance and relatively decreased insulin secretion, treatment with oral hypoglycemic agents is generating much excitement. Most retrospective studies and the published clinical experience have failed to demonstrate an increased risk of neonatal hypoglycemia and other neonatal morbidities with glyburide or metformin. To date there has been only one randomized controlled trial utilizing glyburide, which found it to be safe and effective in the management of GDM. More intensive investigation regarding the safety and feasibility of oral agents in pregnancies complicated by type 2 diabetes is necessary.