Adherence to National Burn Care Review referral criteria in a paediatric Emergency Department

Introduction

The National Burn Care Review (NBCR) gives guidance on the recognition of potentially complex burns requiring assessment and management in a burn unit. This guidance provides a referral framework for those initiating assessment and management of burns. The effect of close adherence to NBCR guidance on workload is at present unknown.

Objectives

To audit referral patterns of burns in our paediatric Emergency Department (ED) in comparison to NBCR referral criteria. To identify the type of injuries not referred despite meeting criteria, and their outcomes, to assess whether these patients come to any harm short-term. To estimate the effect that closer adherence would have on workload and how our unit proposes to work with the ED to improve its distribution and our patients care.

Methods

A retrospective case-note audit of patients presenting to a paediatric ED with a triage diagnosis of “burn/scald” over a 6-month period between 1st April and 29th September 2008.

Results

190 patients presented with burns during this period, of which 126 (66%) had potentially complex burns. Of these, 93 (74%) were not referred to the burns unit i.e. were “under-referred”. In this group burns to specialized areas in patients under 5 years of age were particularly prevalent. 78 (84%) were reviewed in the ED and received no specialist input. Seven patients suffered minor complications. Only three of these patients (3.2%) required subsequent referral to the burns unit for opinion. None required any further specialist intervention.

Conclusion

Strict adherence to NBCR referral criteria could result in a significant increase in workload for regional burn units with as yet unquantifiable benefit in patient outcomes. Many minor injuries appear to be safely managed in the ED with little adverse outcome. Even small improvements in practice could result in a considerable workload increase for a burns unit. Further prospective research is required, particularly looking at longer-term outcomes. We are hoping to improve educational and clinical links between our EDs and burn unit to improve patient care and distribution of clinical workload. Further national guidance maybe necessary.     

Epidemiology and referral patterns of burns admitted to the Burns Centre at Inkosi Albert Luthuli Central Hospital,Durban

Rationale

The epidemiology, referral patterns and outcome of patients admitted to a tertiary burns unit in southern Africa were reviewed.

Materials and methods

The charts of all patients with thermal injury presenting to the Burns Centre at Inkosi Albert Luthuli Central Hospital (IALCH) between 1 January 2008 and 31 December 2010 were reviewed. Information collected included age, gender, past medical history, cause of burn, size of burn, presence of inhalation injury, time before admission, time to excision, length of hospital stay, complications and mortality.

Findings

Four hundred and sixty two patients were admitted, 296 (58%) children and 193 (42%) adults. The female–male ratio was 1:1.13. The mean total body surface area (TBSA) burned was 12% (interquartile range 8–25%) for children and 18% (interquartile range 10–35%) for adults. Common causes for the burns were in children: hot liquids (71%) and open flame (24%). Major causes in adults were: open fire (68%) and hot liquids (25%). Epilepsy was a contributing factor in 12.7%. Inhalation injury was seen in 13.6% of adults and 14.3% of children with a flame burn.Forty-four percent of referrals from general surgical units were for burns <30% in adults, and 30% for burns <10% in children. More than one in four patients was referred between 1 and 6 weeks post-injury.Overall mortality was 9.1% (5.7% in children and 15.1% in adults). Complications occurred in 21.6% of children and 36.7% in adults, the most common being lung complications such as ARDS and infection, severe sepsis, skin graft failure and contractures. The length of stay was 1 day/% TBSA burn for all burns in children and for burns between 10 and 49% in adults.

Conclusions

The epidemiology and outcome of severe burns referred to the Burns Centre at IALCH is similar to those in other units in Africa. The management and referral of burns patients by other hospitals are inappropriate in a significant number of patients.     

Epidemiology of children admitted to the Dutch burn centres. Changes in referral influence admittance rates in burn centres

Background

In the Beverwijk Burn Centre a remarkable rise has been noted in the number of paediatric admissions since 2000. To investigate if this is a national trend and, if so, what may have caused it, a retrospective epidemiological study has been undertaken.

Materials and methods

The databases of the three Dutch burn centres were combined. Data on the population at risk for admission in a burn centre and data on burns related hospital admissions were added. Two age groups, 0–4 years and 5–17 years and two time periods, 1995–1999 and 2000–2007, were compared.

Results

The mean number of paediatric admissions in the Dutch burn centres per year increased by 44.0% and 44.3% for the younger children (0–4 years) and the older children (5–17 years), respectively, whereas the number of paediatric burn admissions in other hospitals in the Netherlands decreased. The percentage of children that was referred from other hospitals increased in both age groups, and for the younger children this was significant.

Conclusion

There has been a shift in paediatric burn care towards a greater volume of admissions in specialized burn care of especially young children with less severe burns. A possible explanation for the increased number of referred children may be the introduction of the EMSB course in 1998, since EMSB guidelines dictate stricter and generally accepted referral criteria.     

严重烧伤或伴吸入性损伤患者休克期输液问题及死亡原因探讨

的　探讨严重烧伤或伴吸入性损伤患者休克期输液问题以及死亡原因。　方法在 1991～ 2 0 0 0年间收治的严重烧伤或伴吸入性损伤患者 112例 ,对这些患者休克期的诊断、输液情况、死亡情况进行了总结。　结果　休克期的输液情况可归纳为 :第 1个 2 4h总入量 2 2ml/ (%TBSA·kg) ,其中胶体 0 5ml/ (%TBSA·kg) ,晶体 1ml/ (%TBSA·kg) ,其余为水分。第 2个 2 4h总入量 1 8ml/(%TBSA·kg) ,其中胶体 0 4ml/ (%TBSA·kg) ,其余为晶体、水分各半。单纯烧伤与烧伤伴吸入性损伤的输液情况 ,两者并无差异。休克期 7例患者死亡 ,原因均为呼吸衰竭 ,其中 3例休克未能纠正。　结论　各种输液公式均可为休克期补液提供参考 ,最重要的是应根据病人具体情况进行输液 ,以保证病人平稳渡过休克为最终目的。单纯烧伤和烧伤伴吸入性损伤患者休克期输液量并无不同。     

Bacterial infection profile and predictors among patients admitted to a burn care center: A retrospective study

BackgroundInfection is the main cause of mortality and complications in burn patients. The present study was the first to examine the local profile and antecedents of bacterial infections among patients admitted to a Lebanese burn care center.MethodsThe present study was a retrospective analysis of the occurrence and recurrence of infection, its characteristics as well as antimicrobial susceptibility among 475 patients admitted to the Burn Centre at the Lebanese Geitaoui Hospital between January 2014 and December 2018.Results55% of patients contracted at least one infection during their hospitalization. Length of stay (LOS), sepsis, wound dressing under anesthesia, blood transfusion and female sex independently and positively predicted infection in burn patients. Infection was predominately caused by Staphylococcus aureus (48.7%), followed by Pseudomonas aeruginosa (22.6%) and Acinetobacter baumannii (15.7%). Bacterial isolates were predominately multi-drug or extensively drug resistant and showed variable antimicrobial susceptibility patterns. Recurrent infections occurred in 44.1% of infected burn patients, and were independently predicted by LOS (p = 0.004), sepsis (p = 0.001), surgery (p = 0.003), burn excision and skin grafting (p = 0.019), and central line insertion (p = 0.004).ConclusionExisting burn management and infection control measures must be revised in order to reduce the incidence and improve the treatment of infections in burn patients.     

Admission factors associated with the in-hospital mortality of burns patients in resource-constrained settings: A two-year retrospective investigation in a South African adult burns centre

ObjectiveLittle is known concerning the factors associated with in-hospital mortality of trauma patients in resource-constrained settings, not least in burns centres. We investigated this question in the adult burns centre at Tygerberg Hospital in Cape Town. We further assessed whether the Abbreviated Burn Severity Index (ABSI) is an accurate predictive score of mortality in this setting.MethodsMedical records of all patients admitted with fresh burns over a two-year period (2015 and 2016) were scrutinized to obtain data on patient, injury and admission-related characteristics. Association with in-hospital mortality was investigated for flame burns using logistic regressions and expressed as odds ratios (ORs). The mortality prediction of the ABSI score was assessed using sensitivity and specificity analyses.ResultsOverall the in-hospital mortality was 20.4%. For the 263 flame burns, while crude ORs suggested gender, burn depth, burn size, inhalation injury, and referral status were all individually significantly associated with mortality, only the association with female gender, not being referred and burn size remained significant after adjustments (adjusted ORs = 3.79, 2.86 and 1.11 (per percentage increase in size) respectively). For the ABSI score, sensitivity and specificity were 84% and 86% respectively.ConclusionIn this specialised centre, mortality occurs in one in five patients. It is associated with a few clinical parameters, and can be predicted using the ABSI score.     

Pre-hospital emergency burn management in Shanghai: Analysis of 1868 burn patients

Background

There are few studies reporting the level of pre-hospital emergency management of burn patients and related influencing factors in China. This study is a summary of our investigation on emergency education and people's awareness about pre-hospital emergency management of burn patients in Shanghai, China, and analyses key factors influencing pre-hospital emergency management of burn patients.

Methods

The survey was conducted by questionnaire in burn patients who sought initial clinical visits at the Burn Center of Changhai Hospital (Shanghai, China) between November 2009 and December 2010, including demographic data, burn conditions, pre-hospital emergency management and education about emergency burn management. Data were statistically treated by SPSS software.

Results

Altogether 1868 effective questionnaire forms were collected; 33.9% of these burn patients received cooling treatment before admission and 32.2% of them used ‘folk remedies’ or antibiotics to treat the wound surface. Only 12.2% of these burn patients had received education about the knowledge of emergency management, mainly through public media (38.2%), relatives and friends (24.6%), Internet (15.8%), workplace (11.4%) and schools (10.1%). The result of logistic regression analysis showed that emergency education, especially via Internet and workplace, played an important role in pre-hospital emergency management, and that different channels of emergency education affected different age groups of people: network and unit education mainly affected young adults, while relatives and friends mainly affected elderly people. In addition, educational level was an important factor favourably affecting ‘cooling therapy’.

Conclusions

The level of emergency burn management and related education is relatively low in China at present, and it is therefore necessary to intensify education about pre-hospital emergency management to raise the level of emergency burn management. At the same time, more attention should be paid to age- and population-specific education. Finally, universal emergency education should be included in the national basic education as a long-term strategy.     

Characteristics of burn patients at a major burn center in Shanghai

In China, burns are becoming a major cause of morbidity and mortality with large societal and economic implications. To date, there is little epidemiological data on burns in China to direct prevention efforts. This study describes the characteristics of burn patients admitted to a major burn center in Shanghai using a burn registry developed in Toronto, Canada. A retrospective review of burn patients discharged from the Shanghai's Rui Jin Hospital Burn Unit, between March 1st 2002 and April 30th 2003, was conducted. Of 527 patients discharged, 307 were acute burn patients and 302 (98.4%) had complete data to be included in the study. There were 214 (71%) males and 88 (29%) females with a male to female ratio of 2.4:1. The median age was 30 years, and the median total body surface area burned was 10%. The majority of burns occurred at work (58%), and the most frequent etiology was flames (39%) followed by scalds (31%) and contact with hot objects (15%). Sixteen (5%) patients had inhalation injury and six (2%) patients died. There were 70 (23%) children (0–14 years), 221 (73%) adults (15–59 years) and 11 (4%) seniors (60 years and above). Children had more scald burns (83%) and the majority (83%) occurred at home. Adults had more flame burns (46%) and the majority (79%) were work-related injuries. Seniors had more flame burns (73%) and the majority (55%) occurred in domestic incidents. Seniors had deeper burns (13%, p = 0.005), required more escharotomies (55%, p = 0.002), required more operations (2, p = 0.051) and had higher mortality (36%, p < 0.001) than other age groups. These results provide compelling evidence for performing population-based studies to identify risk factors that are susceptible to modification in each age group.     

The epidemiology of patients with burn injuries admitted to Norwegian hospitals in 2007

Objectives

To study the incidence and outcome of burns in Norway in 2007, and to establish estimates for effective length of stay, mortality and economical costs.

Methods

Data from the Norwegian Patient Registry on all patients discharged from all somatic hospitals in Norway in 2007 with main or subsidiary diagnosis of burn injury (ICD-10: T20–31) were collected.

Results

Seven hundred and twenty-six patients (65.0% male) with acute burns were admitted to Norwegian hospitals in 2007, requiring 8157 in-hospital days and resulting in a mean length of hospitalization per burn case of 11.3 days (S.D. 15.2). The mean age of the patients was 26.9 years (S.D. 25.5), and the mortality was 2.1%. For children below 5 years of age the incidence of burns admitted to hospital was 82.5/100,000/year. The annual total cost for in-hospital burn care exceeded €10.5 million (€2,200,000/million inhabitants)

Conclusion

Compared to similar data from Norway (1992) the rate of admission for burns in 2007 (15.5/100,000/year) appeared as high as in 1992, whereas the mean length of stay was reduced by 26%. Children under the age of 5 had a seven times higher incidence compared the rest of the population.     

A systematic review of quantitative burn wound microbiology in the management of burns patients

Background

The early diagnosis of infection or sepsis in burns are important for patient care. Globally, a large number of burn centres advocate quantitative cultures of wound biopsies for patient management, since there is assumed to be a direct link between the bioburden of a burn wound and the risk of microbial invasion. Given the conflicting study findings in this area, a systematic review was warranted.

Cost-utility analysis applied to the treatment of burn patients in a specialized center

OBJECTIVE: To discover the total costs and quality of life of burn patients in a specialist center classified by diagnosis-related groups (DRGs). DESIGN: Prospective study of 5-year follow-up from January 1, 1997, through December 31, 2001. SETTING: Burn Center of Valencia. PATIENTS: A total of 898 patients treated at the Burn Center of Valencia. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Hospital, extrahospital, caregiving, labor, and social costs of the burn patients grouped by DRG (code 457: extensive burns without operating room procedure; code 458: nonextensive burns with skin graft; code 459: nonextensive burns with wound debridement or other operating room procedure; code 460: nonextensive burns without operating room procedure; or code 472: extensive burns with operating room procedure) were studied. The costs were compared with those that the DRG system assigns. The quality of life of the patients at the end of the follow-up period was also studied. To measure quality of life, the EuroQol 5-Dimensions survey was used. Utility calculations and cost-utility analysis were undertaken according to life expectancy. RESULTS: The number of quality-adjusted life-years produced by the center was 13 577, with a mean quality-of-life level on release from the study of 0.87. The mean cost per patient, including the social and labor costs, was $95 551, with health care costs amounting to only 10%. The mean cost per quality-adjusted life-year was $686. CONCLUSIONS: The labor costs were the most important and amounted to 56%; together with the social costs, these constituted 85% of the total costs. The DRG code 456 was an option dominated by the remaining DRG codes 458 through 460 and 472. Given the high costs of treating burn patients, a clear health care policy is urgently needed.     

Clinical factors affecting mortality in elderly burn patients admitted to a burns service

INTRODUCTION: The purpose of this retrospective study was to provide basic probabilistic predictors of mortality to assist in determining appropriate therapeutic aggression in elderly burns population. METHOD: Eighty patients over the age of 70 years were admitted to the Victorian Adult Burns Service in Melbourne, Australia, over a period of 4 years. Retrospective data was analysed, taking into account patient demographics, type, site, depth and area of burn, presence of inhalation injury, number of co-morbidities, survival time and the number of operations performed, withdrawal of care and implementation of comfort measures only. RESULTS: Comparing survivors and non-survivors, significant differences were found between age, percentage total burn surface area (TBSA%), percentage full thickness surface area (FTSA%), presence of inhalation injury, site of burn and number of operations. The number of co-morbidities and gender were not significant to outcome. FTSA%, presence of inhalation injury, site of burn, age and number of operations were all significantly related to survival time. When patients who obtained comfort care were excluded from analysis, age and the number of operations were not considered to be significantly related to mortality. CONCLUSION: This study indicates that TBSA%, FTSA%, inhalation injury and age are significant predictors of death in the elderly burns population, although only the first three remain significant when patients who receive comfort care measures only are excluded.     

Physical functional outcome assessment of patients with major burns admitted to a UK Burn Intensive Care Unit

Determining the discharge outcome of burn patients can be challenging and therefore a validated objective measure of functional independence would assist with this process. We developed the Functional Assessment for Burns (FAB) score to measure burn patients’ functional independence. FAB scores were taken on discharge from ICU (FAB 1) and on discharge from inpatient burn care (FAB 2) in 56 patients meeting the American Burn Association criteria for major burn. We retrospectively analysed prospectively collected data to measure the progress of patients’ physical functional outcomes and to evaluate the predictive validity of the FAB score for discharge outcome. Mean age was 38.6 years and median burn size 35%. Significant improvements were made in the physical functional outcomes between FAB 1 and FAB 2 scores (p < 0.0001). 48 patients were discharged home, 8 of these with social care. 8 patients were transferred to another hospital for further inpatient rehabilitation. FAB 1 score (≤9) is strongly associated with discharge outcome (p < 0.006) and as such can be used to facilitate early discharge planning. FAB 2 score (≤26) independently predicts discharge outcome (p < 0.0001) and therefore is a valid outcome measure to determine discharge outcome of burn patients.     

Characterization of critically ill adult burn patients admitted to a Brazilian intensive care unit

IntroductionTo characterize the evolution of clinical and physiological variables in severe adult burn patients admitted to a Brazilian burn ICU, we hypothesized that characteristics of survivors are different from non-survivors after ICU admission.MethodsA five-year observational study was carried out. The clinical characteristics, physiological variables, and outcomes were collected during this period.ResultsA total of 163 patients required ICU support and were analyzed. Median age was 34 [25,47] years. Total burn surface area (TBSA) was 29 [18,43]%, and hospital mortality rate was 42%. Lethal burn area at which fifty percent of patients died (LA50%) was 36.5%. Median SAPS3 was 41 [34,54]. Factors associated with hospital mortality were analyzed in three steps, the first incorporated ICU admission data, the second incorporated first day ICU data, and the third incorporated data from the first week of an ICU stay. We found a significant association between hospital mortality and SAPS3 [OR(95%CI) = 1.114(1.062–1.168)], TBSA [OR(95%CI) = 1.043(1.010–1.076)], suicide attempts [OR(95%CI) = 8.126(2.284–28.907)], and cumulative fluid balance per liter within the first week [OR(95%CI) = 1.090(1.030–1.154)]. Inhalation injury was present in 45% of patients, and it was not significantly associated with hospital mortality.ConclusionsIn this study of an ICU in a developing country, the mortality rate of critically ill burn patients was high and the TBSA was an independent risk factor for death. SAPS3 at admission and cumulative fluid balance in the first seven days, were also associated with unfavorable outcomes. The implementation of judicious fluid management after an acute resuscitation phase may help to improve outcomes in this scenario.     

Evaluation of plasma oxidative stress,with or without antioxidant supplementation,in superficial partial thickness burn patients: a pilot study

Background: Oxidative stress is one of the main causes of pathophysiological alterations observed during burn injury. The present pilot study aimed to determine whether a specific oral antioxidant supplementation could in any way influence free radical blood values in patients affected by superficial partial thickness burns.

Materials and methods: Plasma oxidants and plasma antioxidant capacity were analysed in 20 superficial partial thickness burn patients for a 2-week period; patients were randomly divided into two groups, one of which was supported with a specifically designed oral antioxidant formula (Squalene 100?mg, Vitamin C 30?mg, Coenzyme Q10 10?mg, Zinc 5?mg, Beta Carotene 3.6?mg, Bioflavonoids 30?mg, Selenium 55?mcg) administered daily, starting from the day of admission, for the whole study period.

Results: No significant differences were found in plasma oxidants and plasma antioxidant capacity between the two groups of patients.

Conclusions: These results did not reflect any significant benefits of an antioxidant oral supplementation at usual dosages when considering oxidative plasmatic values of superficial partial thickness burn patients.     

严重烧伤患者血浆凝溶胶蛋白水平及其与预后的关系

目的 观察严重烧伤患者血浆凝溶胶蛋白水平变化规律,探讨其与脓毒症和死亡之间的关系. 方法 2010年5月-2012年5月,将2家笔者单位收治的102例烧伤总面积大于或等于30％ TBSA的患者设为烧伤组,另设25名健康志愿者为健康对照组.分别于伤后1、3、7、14、21 d采集患者外周静脉血,双抗体夹心ELISA法检测血浆凝溶胶蛋白水平;同法取健康对照组人员血液行相同检测.(1)按烧伤总面积将烧伤组患者分为小面积(30％ ～ 49％ TBSA)烧伤组39例、中面积(大于49％且小于或等于69％ TBSA)烧伤组33例、大面积(大于69％且小于或等于99％ TBSA)烧伤组30例;(2)根据烧伤脓毒症诊断标准,将烧伤组患者分为脓毒症组43例与非脓毒症组59例;(3)根据脓毒症患者的预后情况,将脓毒症组患者分为脓毒症死亡组14例与脓毒症存活组29例.比较各组患者血浆凝溶胶蛋白水平,分析其与患者并发脓毒症及死亡的关系.对数据进行方差分析、LSD检验、单因素Logistic回归分析. 结果 (1)伤后l、3、7、14、21 d,烧伤组患者血浆凝溶胶蛋白水平均较健康对照组明显降低(F值分别为140.01、369.52、702.15、360.14、84.16,P值均小于0.01).(2)大、中、小面积烧伤组患者血浆凝溶胶蛋白水平5个时相点均值分别为(43±11)、(85 ±23)、(124±38) mg/L,组间比较差异有统计学意义(F=367.76,P＜0.01),且均明显低于健康对照组的(326±51) mg/L(P值均小于0.01).(3)脓毒症组、非脓毒症组患者血浆凝溶胶蛋白水平5个时相点均值分别为(77±12)、(122±38)mg/L,脓毒症组患者伤后3、7、14、21 d血浆凝溶胶蛋白水平显著低于非脓毒症组(F值分别为30.35、111.59、209.36、422.76,P值均小于0.01).(4)脓毒症死亡组、脓毒症存活组患者血浆凝溶胶蛋白水平5个时相点均值分别为(53±8)、(103±25) mg/L,脓毒症死亡组患者伤后1 ～21 d血浆凝溶胶蛋白水平均显著低于脓毒症存活组(F值分别为9.05、18.48、41.34、107.11、180.48,P值均小于0.01).(5)Logistic回归分析显示,血浆凝溶胶蛋白水平是患者并发脓毒症(优势比为5.44,95％置信区间为2.35 ～12.74,P＜0.01)及死亡(优势比为5.52,95％置信区间为2.34～12.19,P＜0.01)的独立危险因素. 结论 严重烧伤可导致患者血浆凝溶胶蛋白水平明显降低,患者烧伤面积越大、病情越重该指标水平越低.凝溶胶蛋白水平可作为早期预测严重烧伤患者并发脓毒症或死亡的独立指标.     

The epidemiology of burns in a medical center in the Caribbean

A retrospective study on burns patients admitted to the Sint Elisabeth's Hospital on Curacao was conducted during the 11-year period from the years 1992 to 2002. This is the first such study performed in Curacao. Curacao does not have an established burn center, therefore severe burns cases are treated in a general hospital. Only the very severe cases are referred to burn centers abroad.Data were collected on incidence, gender, age, cause, total body surface area (TBSA burned), degree, localization, case fatality, length of hospital stay (LOS), and seasonal variation. A total of 336 burns patients were admitted. This represented an annual admission of 31 patients, and an annual cumulative incidence of 2.3 episodes per thousand persons for burns admissions. The male to female ratio was 1.6:1, and the mean age of admission was 24.3 years. Most burned patients were observed in the age group ranging from 0 to 4 years old (29.2% of all burns cases). The mean TBSA of burn was 13.6%, range 0.5–80%. The most common cause of burn was scald (47.9%) followed by flame (22.3%). The overall mean LOS and case fatality were 15.8 days and 3.3%, respectively. Second and first degree combined, and second-degree only burns were the most frequent. Most frequent localizations burned were the arms, thorax, and legs. Most burns occurred at the end and at the beginning of each year (comparable to winter and spring period in other studies), being the seasons with the most public holidays and other festivities.We conclude that the incidence, age and gender distribution, LOS and TBSA of burns on Curacao were very similar to data from other international studies from the US, Europe and Asia. Scald and fire were the major causes of burns, being preventable injuries. Especially in young children the need for a prevention program is essential. Also, there is a need to inform people from all ages on the danger of fire injuries, especially during public holidays and other festivities when the incidence is the highest.