上海市浦东新区饮用水三卤甲烷和卤乙酸含量及其健康风险评价

[目的]通过对水厂三卤甲烷和卤乙酸的检测及其健康风险评价,了解浦东新区出厂水消毒副产物含量分布及其对人群潜在的健康风险。[方法]选取浦东新区5家水厂出厂水,于2012年的3、5和6月份,2013年的3、5和8月份以及2014年的2月份采集水样共28份,分别检测三卤甲烷和卤乙酸浓度,结合风险评价模型对人群通过饮水途径暴露于三卤甲烷和卤乙酸进行健康风险评价。[结果]出厂水消毒副产物检出浓度最高者为D水厂丰水期的氯仿（15.0μg/L）;最低者为B水厂枯水期的二氯乙酸（未检出）;5水厂中氯仿浓度丰水期〉枯水期,二溴一氯甲烷和溴仿浓度丰水期〈枯水期;5水厂二氯乙酸和三氯乙酸浓度范围分别为未检出~5.00μg/L和0.55～8.25μg/L,其中三氯乙酸浓度在丰水期略高于枯水期,而二氯乙酸含量变化不大。经口致癌风险中二溴一氯甲烷居首位（最高为2.90×10-5）,最低为氯仿（5.30×10-7）。除丰水期溴仿（风险范围5.30×10-7～1.10×10-6）外,5水厂丰、枯水两时期的二溴一氯甲烷、一溴二氯甲烷、二氯乙酸和三氯乙酸致癌风险范围在2.00×10-6～2.90×10-5,高于美国环境保护署给出的可接受最低致癌风险（10-6）。非致癌风险氯仿最高,其次为枯水期的二氯乙酸。经口致癌和非致癌风险均表现为时期和性别差异：枯水期〉丰水期（5水厂氯仿和B水厂二氯乙酸和三氯乙酸的非致癌风险表现丰水期〉枯水期）,女性〉男性。[结论]5个水厂饮用水中二溴一氯甲烷和一溴二氯甲烷的致癌风险最高,氯仿和二氯乙酸非致癌风险最高,且枯水期大于丰水期,在改善饮用水加工工艺时应重视长期暴露于饮用水中消毒副产物引起的潜在健康风险,并针对枯水期和丰水期的差异进行工艺调整,降低水中消毒副产物对人群的健康危害。     

江苏省城市饮用水氯化消毒副产物的健康风险评估

目的 了解江苏省城市饮用水中氯化消毒副产物三卤甲烷、卤乙酸暴露水平,评估饮用水中氯化消毒副产物经口摄入途径对人体健康潜在危害,为制定饮水安全保障政策提供参考.方法 2017-2019年,选取全省氯化消毒的市政水厂51座,在枯水期(3-5月)、丰水期(7-9月)采集出厂水、末梢水192份,检测水中三卤甲烷(三氯甲烷、一氯二溴甲烷、二氯一溴甲烷、三溴甲烷)、卤乙酸(二氯乙酸、三氯乙酸)暴露水平,使用美国环保署推荐的健康风险评价模型,对氯化消毒副产物经口摄入途径的健康风险进行评估.结果 所有水样氯化消毒副产物检出值均低于国标限值.氯化消毒副产物对成年男性、成年女性、儿童终身致癌风险分别为3.13×10-5、3.16×10-5、2.91×10-5,其中二氯一溴甲烷致癌风险最高,对成年男性、成年女性、儿童致癌风险分别为1.12×10-5、1.13×10-5、1.04×10-5,分别占总致癌风险的35.78％、35.76％、35.74％.副产物终身致癌风险液氯消毒高于次氯酸钠消毒,末梢水高于出厂水,丰水期高于枯水期.对成年男性、成年女性、儿童非致癌风险健康危害指数分别为7.30×10-2、7.40×10-2、6.80×10-2,其中三氯甲烷非致癌风险最高.结论 江苏省城市饮用水氯化消毒副产物终身致癌风险、非致癌风险均在可接受范围内,二氯一溴甲烷、一氯二溴甲烷是风险管理重点指标.     

无锡地区出厂水消毒副产物变化趋势及致癌风险研究

目的了解2008—2012年无锡地区出厂水中消毒副产物(DBPs)变化趋势,评估其对成人的致癌风险。方法选取无锡市四家市政供水水厂,于2008—2012年间丰枯水期(8月和2月)采集水样进行监测,监测指标包括4种三卤甲烷类消毒副产物(THMs,三氯甲烷、二氯一溴甲烷、一氯二溴甲烷和三溴甲烷)和两种卤乙酸类消毒副产物(HAAs,二氯乙酸和三氯乙酸),采用美国环保局推荐的低剂量致癌风险评价方法对其进行评价。结果所有消毒副产物检出值都低于《生活饮用水卫生标准》(GB 5749-2006)[1]的限值。THMs在丰水期的含量高于枯水期的含量,有明显的季节特征。而HAAs则无明显变化规律。无锡地区6种DBPs对成人的致癌风险均超过了USEPA认为可以忽略的水平(10-6),处于具有潜在致癌风险的区间(10-6~10-4),其中各DBPs总致癌风险从高到低分别为三氯乙酸二氯乙酸一氯二溴甲烷三溴甲烷二氯一溴甲烷三氯甲烷。结论无锡地区出厂水中THMs有明显的季节性特征,DBPs对成人具有潜在的致癌风险。     

上海市夏季游泳池水消毒副产物暴露水平及健康风险评估

目的研究上海市夏季游泳池水消毒副产物暴露水平及健康风险。方法于2016年7—8月,在上海市黄浦、静安、闵行和青浦4区各选择2家游泳场馆,以全部18个游泳池作为研究对象。检测游泳池水中消毒副产物三卤甲烷类(trihalomethanes,THMs,包括三氯甲烷、三溴甲烷、一氯二溴甲烷和二氯一溴甲烷)和卤代乙酸类(haloacetic acids,HAAs,包括一氯乙酸、二氯乙酸、三氯乙酸、一溴二氯乙酸和二溴乙酸)的浓度;基于问卷调查,对游泳池人群的消毒副产物暴露特征和水平进行评估,并评价其健康风险。结果除三溴甲烷未检出外,上海市夏季游泳池水中均检出其余8种消毒副产物。其中,三氯甲烷浓度为7.70~101.90μg/L;二溴一氯甲烷浓度为0.20~6.60μg/L;一溴二氯甲烷浓度为0.72~17.90μg/L;一氯乙酸浓度为5~88μg/L;二氯乙酸浓度为6.20~480.10μg/L;三氯乙酸浓度为7.60~613.30μg/L;一溴二氯乙酸浓度为4.17~17.60μg/L;二溴乙酸浓度为0.36~3.90μg/L。人群经皮肤和呼吸道暴露以三氯甲烷最高,人群平均致癌风险均小于1×10~(-5),非致癌风险远低于1。结论上海市夏季游泳池水人群消毒副产物经皮肤和呼吸道的致癌和非致癌风险都在可接受水平。     

上海市黄浦区饮用水中氯化消毒副产物的分布特征

目的分析上海市黄浦区生活饮用水中氯化消毒副产物(CDBPs)的污染水平和分布特征,同时研究氯化消毒副产物产生的影响因素。方法选取辖区内出厂水、管网水、二次供水等供水情况进行调查,同时对主要的氯化消毒副产物以及天然有机物、总氯等指标进行检测。结果水体中含量总体分布为三氯甲烷二氯一溴甲烷一氯二溴甲烷三溴甲烷;其水体中含量总体分布为二氯乙酸三氯乙酸;一氯二溴甲烷、三溴甲烷、二氯乙酸的浓度丰水期和枯水期比较,其差异有统计学意义(P0.05),丰水期含量高于枯水期;饮水中二溴一氯甲烷、三溴甲烷、三氯乙酸浓度与总有机碳含量呈正相关,Pearson相关系数分别为0.383、0.564、0.340(P0.05)。结论在该区饮用水中氯化消毒副产物有较高的检出率,丰水期含量高于枯水期。总有机碳是氯化消毒副产物形成的影响因素。     

银川市改水前后氯化消毒副产物结果分析及健康风险评价

目的 了解银川市改水前后饮用水中氯化消毒副产物的污染状况，并对其健康风险进行评价。方法 依据《生活饮用水标准检测方法》(GB/T 5750—2006)对我国银川市城区改水前后饮水中消毒副产物进行监测，利用美国环境保护署USEPA推荐的健康风险模型进行风险评价。结果 改水前后饮用水中主要的氯化消毒副产物是三氯甲烷、二氯一溴甲烷、二溴一氯甲烷和三溴甲烷，合格率均为100.0%。改水前后4种消毒副产物总的致癌风险值为5.56×10^-6和3.19×10^-5,男性和女性致癌风险值分别为3.42×10^-5和3.05×10^-5。结论 银川市改水后主要的消毒副产物是三卤甲烷类(三氯甲烷、二氯一溴甲烷、二溴一氯甲烷),其浓度均低于《生活饮用水卫生标准》(GB 5749—2006)规定的限值，但高于改水前消毒副产物浓度。改水前后4种消毒副产物总的致癌风险值均在可接受水平，男性略高于女性。     

云南省K市水厂出厂水中卤乙酸的健康风险评估

目的 监测饮用水中卤乙酸污染状况,并对其健康风险进行评价,了解K市人群通过饮水途径可能引起的健康风险。 方法 依据《生活饮用水标准检测方法》(GB/T 5750-2006)对K市市政水厂出厂水卤乙酸进行监测,利用美国国家环保局推荐的健康风险模型进行风险评价。结果 K市饮用水二氯乙酸、三氯乙酸致癌风险范围分别为3.33×10^-6～1.38×10^-4、1.12×10^-6～1.91×10^-4,二氯乙酸致癌风险占比最高;非致癌健康危害指数分别为1.67×10^-2～6.90×10^-1、8.34×10^-4～1.42×10^-1,三氯乙酸对非致癌健康危害风险贡献最大。结论 K市应重视长期暴露于饮用水中消毒副产物卤乙酸引起的潜在健康风险,降低水中卤乙酸类消毒副产物对人群的健康危害。     

潍坊市饮用水中消毒副产物的水平及其健康风险评价

目的了解潍坊市居民生活饮用水中消毒副产物的种类和分布水平,并对其健康风险进行评价。方法于2018年丰水期(8月)和枯水期(3月)采集潍坊市区12家市政水厂的出厂水和相应的末梢水水样共86份,对水样中18种消毒副产物进行浓度水平检测和健康风险评价。检测结果评价参考国家生活饮用水标准(GB5749—2006),并参照美国USEPA的致癌风险模型评估DBPs经饮水途径对潍坊市居民造成的健康危害。结果潍坊市饮用水中主要检测到的消毒副产物为THMs(TCM、BDCM、DBCM和TBM);丰水期与枯水期消毒副产物的浓度在不同季节分布均无差异(P>0.05);出厂水和末梢水中消毒副产物引起的致癌风险分别为11.1×10~(-7)～7.73×10~(-5)和7.86×10~(-7)～1.07×10~(-4),非致癌风险分别为1.82×10~(-3)～0.13和1.64×10~(-3)～0.18,致癌风险均来自三卤甲烷类物质。结论三卤甲烷是2018年潍坊市主城区饮用水中的主要消毒副产物。     

自贡市乡镇自来水厂氯化消毒副产物调查

目的 调查自贡市乡镇自来水厂消毒副产物的现状.方法 2010年分别在丰水期和枯水期对32家乡镇自来水厂进行卫生学调查并对源水、出厂水及末梢水中三卤甲烷、卤乙酸等指标进行测定.结果 32家自来水厂均检出氯化消毒副产物,包括4种三卤甲烷(三氯甲烷、二氯一溴甲烷、一氯二溴甲烷和三溴甲烷)和2种卤乙酸(二氯乙酸、三氯乙酸),三氯甲烷超标率为28％,二氯乙酸超标率为22％,二氯一溴甲烷超标率为3％.结论 自贡市乡镇水厂均存在不同程度的消毒副产物污染,其对居民身体健康的影响不容忽视.     

煮沸前后饮水有机污染物及消毒副产物含量的变化

目的 研究农村水厂常规水处理不同阶段的水及出厂水煮沸前后有机污染物及消毒副产物(DBPs)的变化.方法 于2011年8-9月,采集南方某地8家有完全处理工艺的农村水厂的原水、滤后水、出厂水水样,并取出厂水煮沸及在保温瓶放置8～12h均降到40℃时(即煮沸水和保温瓶水)的水样.测定pH值、有机污染物[化学耗氧量(COD)、总有机碳(TOC)]和DBPs含量[挥发性三卤甲烷(THMs),包括三氯甲烷(TCM)、一溴二氯甲烷(DCBM)、二溴一氯甲烷(DBCM)、三溴甲烷(TBM);非挥发性卤乙酸(HAAs),包括一氯乙酸(MCAA)、二氯乙酸(DCAA)、三氯乙酸(TCAA)]及氯酸盐和亚氯酸盐含量.结果 pH值由原水至出厂水阶段略有降低趋势,而在煮沸水和保温瓶水中有升高的趋势.COD和TOC含量从原水到出厂水呈降低的趋势,煮沸后含量变化不明显,但在保温瓶水中的含量均有所升高,且高于出厂水.挥发性消毒副产物以三氯甲烷在出厂水中含量最高,煮沸水中三卤甲烷类各种组分均有降低趋势,保温瓶水含量变化不明显;非挥发性消毒副产物以二氯乙酸为主,其含量变化与其他组分不同,煮沸水中含量略有下降,保温瓶水的二氯乙酸含量却有所升高,均值达15.14 μg/L,高于出厂水的9.65 μg/L.氯酸盐和亚氯酸盐仅出现在采用二氧化氯消毒的出厂水中.结论 经化学消毒的自来水煮沸后,挥发性消毒副产物含量有所降低,但对非挥发性的消毒副产物去除作用不明显,且煮沸后于保温瓶中放置使二氯乙酸的含量大幅升高.     

2018-2020年某市饮用水中消毒副产物监测结果及风险评估

目的 了解某市城区生活饮用水中消毒副产物的分布,并对其进行健康风险评估.方法 2018-2020年对该市城区市政出厂水消毒副产物进行监测,按照美国环保局推荐的健康风险模型进行风险评估.结果 出厂水中共检出三氯甲烷、一氯二溴甲烷、二氯一溴甲烷、三溴甲烷、二氯乙酸、亚氯酸盐、氯酸盐等11种消毒副产物,其含量均符合《生活饮用...     

Description of trihalomethane levels in three UK water suppliers

Samples of drinking water are routinely analysed for four trihalomethanes (THMs), which are indicators of by-products of disinfection with chlorine, by UK water suppliers to demonstrate compliance with regulations. The THM data for 1992-1993 to 1997-1998 for three water suppliers in the north and midlands of England were made available for a UK epidemiological study of the association between disinfection by-products and adverse birth outcomes. This paper describes the THM levels in these three supply regions and discusses possible sources of variation. THM levels varied between different suppliers' water, and average THM levels were within the regulatory limits. Chloroform was the predominant THM in all water types apart from the ground water of one supplier. The supplier that distributed more ground and lowland surface water had higher dibromochloromethane (DBCM) and bromoform levels and lower chloroform levels than the other two suppliers. In the water of two suppliers, seasonal fluctuations in bromodichloromethane (BDCM) and DBCM levels were found with levels peaking in the summer and autumn. In the other water supplier, chloroform levels followed a similar seasonal trend whereas BDCM and DBCM levels did not. For all three water suppliers, chloroform levels declined throughout 1995 when there was a drought period. There was a moderate positive correlation between the THMs most similar in their structure (chloroform and BDCM, BDCM and DBCM, and DBCM and bromoform) and a slight negative correlation between chloroform and bromoform levels.     

2009年深圳市水质网络监测中氯乙酸结果分析

目的分析深圳市出厂水和末梢水中氯乙酸的含量水平。方法采用气相色谱法对水样中的氯乙酸进行分析检测,按照《生活饮用水卫生标准》的规定进行评价。结果二氯乙酸（DCAA）限值为0.05mg/L,三氯乙酸（TCAA）限值为0.1mg/L,全部结果均不超标。结论不同的消毒方式产生的氯乙酸含量有差异,但影响饮用水中氯化消毒副产物产生的因素较多,其中源水中有机物前体的种类和浓度是其生成的决定性因素。     

Validation of urinary trichloroacetic acid as a biomarker of exposure to drinking water disinfection by-products

Disinfection by-products (DBPs) in drinking water represent a public health issue and a challenge for epidemiology to provide evidence towards the causation of various hypothesized health effects. Validation of a biomarker of exposure to DBPs is a strategy to achieve progress which has been advocated. The objective of this study was to validate urinary trichloroacetic acid (TCAA) excretion as a biomarker of exposure to DBPs in an experimental exposure cohort. A total of 52 healthy women participated in the study. Participants consumed supplied tap water for 15 d and provided urine and blood samples for TCAA measurements. The findings revealed that (1) background levels of TCAA in urine and blood were readily detectable, (2) TCAA levels in blood and urine increased with increased amounts of TCAA ingested, (3) the correlations between measurements of TCAA ingestion and urinary excretion were modest (r=0.66, p<0.001) based on one days' sampling and high (r=0.77–0.83, p<0.001) based on two to four days' sampling, (4) the correlations between measurements of TCAA ingestion and blood TCAA concentration were high (r=0.80, p<0.001) and (5) multiple days' urinary TCAA measures improved the prediction of TCAA ingestion through urinary TCAA excretion. TCAA can be a valid biomarker of exposure for DBPs in drinking water.     

Fate of THMs and HAAs in low TOC surface water

A total of 30 conventional surface water treatment plants (WTPs) implementing prechlorination and postchlorination simultaneously from different regions in Korea were investigated to assess formation and removal of THMs and HAA₅. All water was low in total organic carbon (TOC) ranging from 0.74 to 6.20 mg/L with an average of 1.63 mg/L. The ranges of THMs and HAA₅ levels were 4.5-84.3 μg/L and 1.5-90.8 μg/L, respectively. THMs concentration was more sensitive to water temperature than HAA₅ and the ratio of THMs in summer over winter was 2.06. The sum of dichloroacetic acid (DCAA) and trichloroacetic acid (TCAA) was 97% of HAA₅. The extent of formation and speciation of DBPs varied greatly by season and geography. The concentration of DCAA and TCAA of the finished water was comparable on a yearly base, but more TCAA was noticed in summer and the opposite trend was noticed in winter. This can be caused by different biodegradability in the sand filter between DCAA and TCAA that formed through prechlorination. Investigation on the removal of preformed DBPs in the GAC filter-adsorber (FA) revealed that breakthrough of THMs and HAA₅ was noticed after 3 months of operation. However, gradual improvement (>90%) in HAA₅ removal was observed again after breakthrough, which could be attributable to biodegradation. Heterotrophic plate counts confirmed active biological activity in the GAC FA.     

Blood Biomarkers of Late Pregnancy Exposure to Trihalomethanes in Drinking Water and Fetal Growth Measures and Gestational Age in a Chinese Cohort

Background:

Previous studies have suggested that elevated exposure to disinfection by-products (DBPs) in drinking water during gestation may result in adverse birth outcomes. However, the findings of these studies remain inconclusive.

Objective:

The purpose of our study was to examine the association between blood biomarkers of late pregnancy exposure to trihalomethanes (THMs) in drinking water and fetal growth and gestational age.

Methods:

We recruited 1,184 pregnant women between 2011 and 2013 in Wuhan and Xiaogan City, Hubei, China. Maternal blood THM concentrations, including chloroform (TCM), bromodichloromethane (BDCM), dibromochloromethane (DBCM), and bromoform (TBM), were measured as exposure biomarkers during late pregnancy. We estimated associations with gestational age and fetal growth indicators [birth weight, birth length, and small for gestational age (SGA)].

Results:

Total THMs (TTHMs; sum of TCM, BDCM, DBCM, and TBM) were associated with lower mean birth weight (–60.9 g; 95% CI: –116.2, –5.6 for the highest vs. lowest tertile; p for trend = 0.03), and BDCM and DBCM exposures were associated with smaller birth length (e.g., –0.20 cm; 95% CI: –0.37, –0.04 for the highest vs. lowest tertile of DBCM; p for trend = 0.02). SGA was increased in association with the second and third tertiles of TTHMs (OR = 2.91; 95% CI: 1.32, 6.42 and OR = 2.25; 95% CI: 1.01, 5.03; p for trend = 0.08).

Conclusions:

Our results suggested that elevated maternal THM exposure may adversely affect fetal growth.

Citation:

Cao WC, Zeng Q, Luo Y, Chen HX, Miao DY, Li L, Cheng YH, Li M, Wang F, You L, Wang YX, Yang P, Lu WQ. 2016. Blood biomarkers of late pregnancy exposure to trihalomethanes in drinking water and fetal growth measures and gestational age in a Chinese cohort. Environ Health Perspect 124:536–541; http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1409234     

小体积水样测定饮用水中二氯乙酸、三氯乙酸的含量

目的优化生活饮用水标准检验方法,建立利用小体积水测定生活饮用水中微量二氯乙酸（DCAA）、三氯乙酸（TCAA）的气相色谱测定方法。方法饮用水中DCAA、TCAA经过酸化、萃取、衍生后,采用气相色谱电子捕获检测器定量检测。结果 DCAA、TCAA在谱图上能够很好的分离,相关系数均大于0.999 5,回收率为94.5%-109.1%,RSD为3.1%-6.5%。结论该方法快速,准确,灵敏度高,适用于生活饮用水的常规批量检测。     

2018年呼和浩特市饮用水中重金属污染物的健康风险评价

目的 评价呼和浩特市地区饮用水中重金属对健康的潜在危害。方法 对呼和浩特市2018年饮用水中的10种重金属进行检测,并应用美国国家环境保护署推荐的健康风险评价模型,对重金属通过饮水途径所引起的健康风险做出评价。结果 440个样品中,砷合格率93.86 %,铁合格率99.55 %,锰合格率99.09 %,其他金属全部合格。重金属的非致癌总风险为5.8942×10-9,致癌总风险为4.4988×10-5,总的健康风险为4.4994 ×10-5,金属致癌的风险排序为:铬(六价）>镉>砷,非致癌风险最高的金属为:砷>铜>铬（六价）。呼和浩特市农村水的致癌总风险和非致癌总风险均高于城市水（Z=-3.323,P=0.001;Z=-4.811,P<0.0001）,出厂水、二次供水和末梢水致癌总风险间存在显著差异（Z=12.82,P=0.002）;丰水期的健康总风险高于枯水期（Z=-3.122,P=0.002）;丰水期的致癌总风险高于枯水期（Z=-3.939,P<0.0001）。结论 呼和浩特市2018年致癌健康风险超过EPA评价标准,有一定风险,非致癌健康风险远低于评价标准。